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1 HE UNITED STATES 

(ALASKA OMITTED.) 

The date in each State is that of its 
admission to the Union. 

The green and yellow colors indicate the 
standard time sections, for an explana- 
tion of ivhich see page 53,5. 



WHEN IVOOfJ 




DATES AT WHICH Tht ORIGINAL THIRTEEN 
STATES RATIFIED THE CONSTITUTION. 



1 . Delaware, 

2. Pennsylvania, 

3. New Jersey, 

4. Georgia, 

5. Connecticut, 

6. Massachusetts, 

7. Maryland, 



1787, Dec. 7. 
'• Dec. 12. 
•' Dec. 18. 

1788, Jan. 2. 
" Jan. 9. 
" Feb. 6. 

April 28 



8. South Carolina, 1788, May 23. 

9. New Hampshire, " June 21. 

10. Virginia, " June 25- 

11. New York, " July 26. 

12. North Carolina, 1789, Nov. 21, 

13. Rhode Island, 1790, May 79. 



The Indian Territory ivas organized in 183U, 
and Oklahoma was carved from it in 1889. 



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A HISTORY OF 
THE UNITED STATES 

FOR SCHOOLS 

BY 

JOHN FISKE, Litt.D., LL.D. 

PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY ( NON-RESIDENT) IN THE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY 

AT ST. I.OUISJ FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY AND LECTURER ON 

PHILOSOPHY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY 

FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES 

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, THE MASSACHUSETTS HISTORICAL 

SOCIETY, THE MILITARY HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MASSACHUSETTS, THE 

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, THE HISTORICAL SOCIETIES OF 

VIRGINIA, MISSOURI, CALIFORNIA, ETC. 



WITH TOPICAL ANALYSIS, SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 
AND DIRECTIONS EOR TEACHERS 



FRANK ALPINE HILL, Litt.D. 

FORMERLY HEAD MASTER OF THE ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL INT CAMBRIDGE 
AND LATER OF THE MECHANIC ARTS HIGH SCHOOL IN BOSTON 




BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 
HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY 






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Copyright, 1894, 1895, and 1S98, 
By HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. 

All rights reserved. 



The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. 
Electrotypsd and Printed by H. O. Houghton & Co. 



PREFACE. 

About thirteen years ago I was solicited at once by 
half a dozen publishing houses to write a school-book 
for the study of American history, and in all these re- 
quests the same reason was alleged. The desire was 
expressed for a book from a professional hand instead 
of the mere compilations formerly in use. In response 
to one of these requests I had formed a definite plan 
for writing such a book, when I was deterred by the 
appearance of two or three new and excellent text-books 
which seemed likely to make mine superfluous. The 
plan was accordingly abandoned, and I thought no more 
of it for several years. 

In 1889, at the instance of my friends, Messrs. 
Houghton, Mifflin & Co., I wrote the little book on 
"Civil Government in the United States," and its grati- 
fying success in schools has led them to urge upon 
me a similar experiment with the general subject of 
American history. The present book is the result. 
One of its chief aims is the furtherance of methods of 
study and instruction such as are indicated in the work 
on "Civil Government." In the teaching of history 
the pupil's mind should not be treated as a mere life- 
less receptacle for facts ; the main thing is to arouse 
his interest and stimulate his faculties to healthful exer- 



iv PREFACE. 

cise. With this end in view I have again been so for- 
tunate as to obtain the assistance of Dr. Frank A. Hill, 
a teacher of great experience, and whose ideas are quite 
in harmony with my own. Dr. Hill has furnished the 
questions which serve as a topical analysis of my chap- 
ters, as also the directions to teachers and the sug- 
gestive questions which point to answers that can be 
obtained only by going outside of this book. I know 
from experience that even children are capable of receiv- 
ing much stimulus from such independent questions, 
and it is hoped that many teachers will find them 
useful. 

It is difficult to squeeze the narrative of nearly three 
centuries within the narrow limits of a school-book 
without making it dull. So much compression requires 
the wholesale sacrifice of details, and it is in the mul- 
tiplicity of details, if well grouped, that the life of a 
narrative is apt to consist. The grouping is, however, 
the main thing. Without the proper grouping, a mass of 
the most picturesque facts is liable to seem like a blur ; 
with proper grouping, even abridged and general state- 
ments may retain a good deal of- life. The best kind of 
grouping is that which brings out most clearly the true 
relations of cause and effect, for it gives to the narra- 
tive the flow of a natural stream. Very young minds 
are susceptible of the charm that is felt upon seeing an 
event emerge naturally from its causes ; perhaps all 
young minds are susceptible of it unless an artificial 
stupidity has been superinduced by bad methods of 
teaching. I have therefore aimed, above all things, at 



PREFACE. V 

telling the story in such a way as to make it clear how 
one event led to another ; and hope that in this way the 
interest will be found to be sustained, even in the ab- 
sence of stories like Putnam and the wolf. The inter- 
est of the pupils will of course be greatly increased by 
collateral readings from more detailed narratives ; and 
here the teacher will find sufficient help in the refer- 
ences which Dr. Hill has appended to each chapter. 
These references are purposely made to a very few 
books, such as any school may have in its library with- 
out great expense. 

Dr. Hill's contributions to this book consist of the 
note To the Teacher, pp. xix-xxi ; the Topics and Ques- 
tions, Suggestive Questions and Directions, and Topics 
for Collateral Reading, at the end of each chapter ; Ap- 
pendix G, pp. 528-530; the first footnote to page 21 ; 
and the footnote to page 22. 

In selecting the illustrations I have carefully re- 
stricted myself to such as are helps to the understand- 
ing or appreciation of the narrative. Such are maps, 
portraits, views of historic buildings, or of towns in past 
stages of development, with an occasional autograph, a 
reproduction of some historical picture, the facsimile of 
a document or old print, etc., etc. Mere fanciful pic- 
tures, or " embellishments," have been scrupulously 
avoided. The maps have all been made either from my 
own sketches or under my direction. 

Cambridge, August 4, 1894. 



PREFACE TO THIS EDITION. 

In the present revision such errors as are incident to 
first editions have been carefully eliminated, and such 
changes have been made as have seemed desirable in 
order to keep the book abreast with the times. 

JOHN FISKE. 
Cambridge, January 20, 1898. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Ancient America i 

II. The Discovery of America 19 

COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA, 1493-1763. 

III. The Spaniards. 1493-1565 40 

IV. French Pioneers. 1 504-1635 50 

V. The English in Virginia. 1 584-1676 59 

VI. New England. 1602-1692 85 

VII. The Middle Zone. 1609-1702 124 

VI 1 1. The Far South. 1660-1752 147 

IX. Overthrow of New France. 1689-1763 . . . .155 

THE REVOLUTION, 1763-1789. 

X. Causes and Beginnings. 1 763-1 776 181 

XI. The Winning of Independence. 1776-1783 . . 216 

XII. The Critical Period. 1783-1789 246 

THE FEDERAL UNION, 1789-1898. 

XIII. The Period of Weakness. 1789-1815 .... 261 

XIV. Westward Expansion. 181 5-1850 305 

XV. Slavery and Secession. 1 850-1 865 345 

XVI. Recent Events. 1 865-1898 433 

XVII. Some Features of Progress 473 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX. 

A. The Constitution of the United States .... 499 

B. The States Classified According to Origin . . . 516 

C. Table of States and Territories 517 

D. Names of the States and Territories, with 

Mention of Books on the History of the Sev- 
eral States 518 

E. Books on Successive Epochs 527 

F. Novels, Poems, Songs, etc., Relating to American 

History 529 

G. Minimum Library of Reference 532 

H. The Calendar, and the Reckoning of Dates . . 534 

Pronouncing Vocabulary 539 

Index 545 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

The United States. (Two-page colored map.) 

(Front lining pages.) 
Portrait of Washington. From a painting by Stuart 

in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. Frontispiece. 

Typical Indian Face. A portrait of American Horse, 

master of ceremonies in the Sun Dance held by the Ogal- 

lala Sioux Indians in 1882 2 

Savage Indians. By Frederic Remington 3 

Area of the Three Grades of Indians in North 

America. (Map.) 4 

Barbarous Indians. By Frederic Remington 4 

Seneca-Iroquois Long-House, and Ground Plan of the 

Same 5 

M and an Round-Houses. From Catlin's North American 

Indians, vol. i 6 

Distribution of Indian Tribes East of the Missis- 
sippi. (Full-page colored map.) Facing 8 

Half-Civilized Indians. From a painting by Julian Scott 9 

Ruined Temple at Uxmal, Yucatan n 

Indian Pipe. (Tail-piece.) 18 

Norse Ships. From a drawing by M. J. Burns 20 

Old Routes of Trade between Europe and Asia. 

(Map.) 22 

Ptolemy's Idea of the World, a. d. 150. (Map.) . . 24 
Mela's Idea of the World, a. d. 50. (Map.) .... 25 
Toscanelli's Map (1474) used by Columbus on his First 

Voyage 27 

Ships of Columbus 28 

Portrait of Columbus. After a painting in the Ministry 

of Marine at Madrid 29 

Portrait of Vespucius. A sketch of an old engraving . 33 
Portrait of Magellan. A facsimile of an engraving in 

Navarrete's Coleccion de Viages, vol. iv 35 



X MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Routes of the Four Greatest Voyages. (Map.) . . 36 
Wolpi. One of the fortified pueblos of the Moqui Indians 

in northeastern Arizona 44 

Spanish Gateway at St. Augustine 45 

French Discoveries and Settlements. (Map.) ... 52 
Portrait of Champlain. This follows the Hamel painting 

after the Moncornet portrait S3 

Spanish Galleon. A facsimile of the sketch given in " Les 

MarinsduXV. etduXVI. Siecles" 61 

Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh. From Stalker's en- 
graving, published in London in 181 2 62 

Autograph of Queen Elizabeth 64 

Grants to London and Plymouth Companies, 1606. 

(Map.) 66 

Portrait of John Smith. From an old engraving ... 68 
Ruins of Jamestown. After a sketch made by Miss C. C. 

Hopley, in 1857, and engraved in Winsor's America, iii. 130. 73 
Portrait of Oliver Cromwell. From a painting by Sir 

Peter Lely 75 

Autograph of Sir William Berkeley 75 

Homes of the Pilgrims. (Map.) 88 

Pilgrim Relics. From Winsor's America, iii. 279 .... 90 
Portrait of John Winthrop. From a painting in the 

State House at Boston, attributed to Vandyke 92 

Minot House, in Dorchester, Mass. (1633-1640). One 

of the oldest wooden houses in North America 95 

A Prospect of the Colledges [sic] in Cambridge, in 
New England. From the oldest known print of Harvard 

College, engraved in 1726 96 

Roger Williams's Church in Salem (1633). This build- 
ing is still standing, just back of the Essex Institute ... 98 
Plan of Pequot Fort. From Palfrey's New England, vol. 
i. A reduced facsimile from the original drawing by 

Captain Underhill 104 

New England in the Seventeenth Century. (Full-page 

colored map.) Facing 106 

King Philip's Mark. From the Memorial History of Boston in 
Portrait of Sir Edmund Andros. After an engraving in 

Andros Tracts, vol. i 113 

The Dominion of New England under Sir Edmund 
Andros, 1688. (Map.) 114 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 

Portrait of the First Lord Baltimore. After a por- 
trait in the Earl of Verulam's gallery at Glastonbury . . .125 
Settlement of the Middle Colonies, 1614-64. (Map.) 126 
Portrait of the Second Lord Baltimore. After an 
engraving made in 1657, now in possession of the Maryland 

Historical Society 127 

Settlement of Maryland. (Map.) 128 

Manhattan Island in the Sixteenth Century. From 
the Memorial History of the City of New York, vol. i. . .129 

Henry Hudson's River. (Map.) 130 

Palisades on Wall Street. From the Memorial History 

of the City of New York, vol. i 131 

Portrait of Peter Stuyvesant. From the Memorial 

History of the City of New York, vol. i 132 

The Strand, Whitehall Street, New York, 1673. After 

a view in Manual of City of New York, 1869 133 

Autograph of Leisler 135 

Portrait of William Penn. At the age of twenty-two. 
After a portrait in possession of the Pennsylvania Historical 

Society 138 

Autograph Signature to Penn's Frame of Govern- 
ment. Reduced from a facsimile in Smith and Watson's 

American Historical and Literary Curiosities 139 

Penn's Wampum Belt 140 

Penn's Slate-Roof House, Philadelphia 141 

The Middle Colonies, 1690. (Map.) 142 

Settlements in the Far South. (Map.) 148 

Portrait of Oglethorpe. From Winsor's America, v. 

362 150 

Savannah in 1741. From Winsor's America, v. 368 . . .151 
Portrait of La Salle. After a design given in Gravier, 
which is said to be based on an engraving preserved in the 

Bibliotheque de Rouen 156 

Northern Part of New France. (Map.) 157 

New France. (Map.) 158 

Autograph of Louis XIV 160 

Autograph of Frontenac 161 

New England Blockhouse. From Winsor's America, v. 185. 163 

Acadia. (Map) 165 

New Orleans in 1719. From Winsor's America, v. 39 . . 166 
Fort Duquesne and its Approaches. (Map) .... 168 



Xil MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Portrait of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. From 

the National Portrait Gallery 171 

New York in the French War. (Map.) 172 

Portrait of Wolfe. After a print in Entick's History of 

the Late War, London, 1764 173 

Portrait of Montcalm. After an engraving in Bonne- 

chose's Montcalm et le Canada Francois, Paris, 1882 . . .174 
North America after the Peace of 1763. (Map.) . .175 
Birthplace of Franklin; situated on Milk Street, Boston 184 
Portrait of Franklin. After a painting in the Boston 

Museum of Fine Arts 185 

Facsimile of a Page from " Poor Richard's Alma- 
nack, " 1746 186 

Franklin's Printing Press. This press may now be seen 
at the rooms of the Bostonian Society, in the Old State 

House, at Boston 187 

Unite or Die. A union device which appeared in the Penn- 
sylvania Gazette, edited by Franklin 188 

A Stamp. From the Memorial History of Boston, vol. iii. . 189 
Portrait of Samuel Adams. After a painting by Copley 

in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 190 

Portrait of Patrick Henry. After a painting by Sully . 191 
Portrait of George III. After a print in Entick's 

History of the Late War, 3d ed., London, 1770 . ... 192 
Portrait of Lord North. From the London (1801) edi- 
tion of Junius 196 

Apollo Room in the Raleigh Tavern, Williamsburg, 
Va. From Magazine of American History, vol. xi. . . . 197 

Faneuil Hall, " The Cradle of Liberty " 198 

The Old Capitol at Williamsburg, Va. From Maga- 
zine of American History, vol. xi 200 

The Old South Meeting-House, Boston 202 

Boston and Neighborhood in 1775. (Map.) 204 

Washington's Headquarters at Cambridge, Mass. . 207 

The Washington Elm, Cambridge, Mass 208 

The State House at Philadelphia. From the Colum- 
bian Magazine, July, 1787 210 

Portrait of Moultrie. From his own Memoirs of the 

American Revolution, New York, 1802 211 

Battery and Bowling Green in 1776. From the Manual 
of the Common Council of New York, 1858 217 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 

Portrait of Sir William Howe. From Murray's History 
of the Present War, London, 1 780 218 

Portrait of Lord Howe. From Murray's History of the 
Present War 219 

Portrait of Charles Lee. From Murray's History of the 
Present War 220 

The Central Field of War, 1776-77. (Map.) . . . . 22 [ 

Portrait of Lord Cornwallis. From the London Mag- 
azine, June, 1 78 1 222 

Portrait of Lafayette. From Etrennes Nationales, 1790 223 

Portrait of John Burgoyne. From Stone's Campaign of 
Lieut.-Gen. John Burgoyne 224 

Portrait of Philip Schuyler. From the Life of Alexan- 
der Hamilton, by J. C. Hamilton 224 

Silhouette and Autograph of John Stark. After a 
silhouette given in Rev. Albert Tyler's Bennington, the Bat- 
tle, 1777; Centennial Celebration, 1877 225 

Portrait and Autograph of Joseph Brant. After a 
picture belonging to the Earl of Warwick, painted by G. 
Romney 226 

Evolution of the American Flag 228 

Burgoyne's Campaign, 1777. (Map.) 229 

Portrait of Steuben. From Du Simitiere's Thirteen Por- 
traits, London, 1783 232 

Portrait of Anthony Wayne. From the National Por- 
trait Gallery, vol. i 233 

Campaign of George Rogers Clark. (Map.) .... 233 

Portrait of Paul Jones. After the medal struck in his 
honor by the United States Congress, to commemorate his 
victory over the Serapis 234 

Portrait of Francis Marion. From Headley's Wash- 
ington and his Generals, vol. ii 235 

Continental Money. Facsimile, full size, of a note now in 
the possession of Harvard University Library .' . . . . 236 

Portrait of Benedict Arnold. From Arnold's Life of 
Arnold 237 

Portrait of Andre. From a portrait by himself .... 238 

General Nathanael Greene. After a photograph of a 
painting 238 

Portrait of Daniel Morgan. After a sketch by Trumbull 239 

Southern Campaigns in the Revolution. (Map.) . . 240 



Xiv MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

The Surrender of Cornwallis. From a painting by 

Trumbull in the Capitol at Washington 241 

Mount Vernon, the Home of Washington 246 

Portrait of Alexander Hamilton. After a crayon by 

J. Baker 254 

Portrait of Thomas Jefferson. After a painting by 

Stuart 254 

Portrait of John Marshall. After a painting by Rem- 
brandt Peale, in the rooms of the Long Island Historical 

Society 255 

Portrait of James Madison. After a painting by C. W. 

Peale, in the rooms of the Long Island Historical Society . 255 
Boston in 1790. Facsimile of a print in the Massachusetts 

Magazine, November, 1790 262 

Hancock House, Beacon Hill, Boston 263 

A Harpsichord 264 

An Old-Fashioned Kitchen. From a photograph of the 
kitchen in the Whittier homestead, at East Haverhill, Mass. 

This is the kitchen described in S now-Bound 265 

A Cotton Plant 266 

A Cotton Field 267 

Scene of Indian War, 1790-95. (Map.) '.271 

Portrait of Chief Justice Jay. From the Stuart por- 
trait in Tuckerman's Life of William Jay 273 

The Truxtun Medal. Presented by Congress to Thomas 

Truxtun, Commander of the American Frigate Constellation 275 
Portrait of John Adams. From Trumbull's painting in 

Memorial Hall, Cambridge, Mass 276 

The Capitol at Washington 279 

The United States before 1803. (Map.) 280 

The United States after 1803. (Map.) 281 

Preble Medal. (Obverse and reverse) Presented by Con- 
gress to Edward Preble, Commodore of the Mediterranean 

fleet 282, 283 

Portrait of Isaac Hull. From The Analectic Magazine, 

vol. i 289 

The Ship Constitution. From a painting by Marshall 

Johnson, Jr., owned by B. F. Stevens, Boston, Mass. . . . 290 
Portrait of O. H. Perry. After an engraving in The 
Analectic Magazine for December, 1813. The original paint- 
ing is now in the New York City Hall 294 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. XV 

Portrait of Thomas Macdonough. After Stuart's paint- 
ing, owned by Macdonough's descendants, and now hanging 
in the rooms of the Century Club, New York 295 

Portrait of James Monroe. After a painting by Vander- 
lyn, now in the New York City Hall 306 

Fulton's Steamboat, the Clermont. From an old print 308 

Areas of Freedom and Slavery in 1820. (Full-page 
colored map.) Facing 3 1 1 

Portrait of John Quincy Adams. From the National 
Portrait Gallery, vol. iv 312 

A Canal with Locks 313 

Portrait of Andrew Jackson. From Parton's Life of 
Andrew Jackson 317 

Portrait of Henry Clay 318 

Portrait of John C. Calhoun 318 

Portrait of Daniel Webster 319 

Portrait of Thomas Hart Benton. From Benton's 
Thirty Years' View 321 

Portrait of George Stephenson. From Appleton's Dic- 
tionary of Mechanics 322 

One of the First Railway Trains in America. From 
a facsimile of the original drawing, now in the possession of 
the Connecticut Historical Society 323 

A View of Chicago in 1832. From a drawing by Mr. 
George Davis 32c 

Portrait of Martin Van Buren. After a painting by 
Holman 326 

Portrait of William Henry Harrison. From the Na- 
tional Portrait Gallery, vol. iii 327 

Portrait of John Tyler. From Williams's Presidents of 
the United States 328 

Portrait of William Lloyd Garrison. From a litho- 
graph made by Grozelier in 1854 331 

Portrait of Wendell Phillips. From a photograph 
taken in 1883 331 

Portrait of Theodore Parker. From a lithograph made 
by Grozelier in 1855 331 

Group of Portraits of Longfellow, Whittier, Emer- 
son, Holmes, Prescott, Irving, and Hawthorne . . 332 

Portrait of Santa Anna. From a print in Alaman's Mejico 333 

Portrait of Samuel Houston. From a picture in Niles's 
South America, and Mexico, Hartford, 1837 334 



xvi MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Portrait of James Knox Polk. From Jenkins's Life of 

James Knox Polk 335 

San Francisco in 1849, from the Head of Clay Street. 

From The Annals of San Francisco 337 

Portrait of Zachary Taylor. From Howard's General 

Taylor 34§ 

Portrait of Millard Fillmore. From Thomas and La- 

throp's Biography of Millard Fillmore 349 

Portrait of Franklin Pierce. From Hawthorne's Life 

of Franklin Pierce 350 

Portrait of Harriet Beecher Stowe. After an engrav- 
ing by R. Young, from an original portrait taken about the 

time when Uncle Tom's Cabin was published 353 

Portrait of Stephen Arnold Douglas. From Wood- 
ward's History of the United States 355 

Areas of Freedom and Slavery in 1854. (Full-page 

colored map.) Facing 357^ 

Portrait of Charles Sumner. From a photograph by J. 

W. Black & Co., Boston 357 

Portrait of James Buchanan. From Horton's Life of 

James Buchanan 359 

The Home of Lincoln at the Age of Twenty-Two. 
This log cabin was situated on Goose-Nest Prairie, near 
Farmington, 111., and was built by Abraham Lincoln and his 

father, in 1 83 1 362 

Portrait of Jefferson Davis 365 

Portrait of Alexander Stephens 365 

Portrait of Abraham Lincoln. From an original, unre- 
touched negative, made in 1864, at the time the President 
commissioned Ulysses Grant Lieutenant-General and Com- 
mander of all the armies of the Republic. It is said that 
this negative, with one of General Grant, was made in com- 
memoration of that event 369 

Fort Sumter 373 

Portrait of Francis Preston Blair 376 

Portrait of Nathaniel Lyon 376 

The Situation in Kentucky in 1861. (Map.) .... 378^ 

Portrait of Joseph E. Johnston 380 

The Fight between the Monitor and the Merrimac. 

After Halsall's painting, now in the Capitol at Washington 382 
Portrait of John Ericsson. From the unique marble bust 
modeled from life by Kneeland, and now in my possession, 
in my house at Cambridge 383 



MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Xvii 

The Field of War, 1861-65. (Map.) 385 

Portrait of David G. Farragut 387 

Portrait of David D. Porter 388 

Portrait of George B. McClellan 388 

Portrait of Robert Edward Lee 389 

Portrait of " Stonewall " Jackson 390 

The War in Virginia, 1861-65. (Map.) 392 

Bridge over the Antietam. From Battles and Leaders 

of the Civil War 393 

Emancipation Group. From a photograph of the bronze 
group situated in Park Square, Boston. Designed by 

Thomas Ball 397 

The Vicksburg Campaign. (Map.) 400 

Gunboats Passing Vicksburg at Night. By permission, 

from the painting by James E. Taylor 402 

Battle of Gettysburg. (Map.) 406 

Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg. From the cyclorama 
of the Battle of Gettysburg, by permission of The National 

Panorama Co 407 

The United States in 1863. Showing original extent of 

the Southern Confederacy. (Full-page colored map.) Facing 408 
Facsimile of Mr. Lincoln's Autographic Copy of the 
Gettysburg Address. From Abraham Lincoln: A His- 
tory, by John G. Nicolay and John Hay. By permission of 

the authors 410, 411 

Group of Portraits of Grant, Thomas, Sherman, 
Sheridan, and Meade. The portrait of Grant is the one 
referred to in the note to Lincoln's portrait on page 369 . .416 
Village of Appomattox Court House. From a war-time 
photograph reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the Civil 
War, showing Mr. McLean's house, in which the articles of 

capitulation were agreed upon and signed 419 

Union Soldiers Sharing their Rations with Confed- 
erates after Lee's Surrender. From a war-time sketch 
reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War . . . 420 
Portrait of Andrew Johnson. From Savage's Life of 

Andrew Johnson 435 

Portrait of Lowell 437 

Portrait of Parkman 438 

Portrait of Motley 438 

Portrait of Rutherford Burchard Hayes .... 445 
Portrait of James Abram Garfield 447 



XV111 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Portrait of Chester Allan Arthur 447 

The New York and Brooklyn Bridge 448 

Portrait of Grover Cleveland 451 

Statue of Liberty. Presented to the United States by 
France in commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of 

the Declaration of Independence 453 

Portrait of Benjamin Harrison 456 

View in Pacific Avenue, Tacoma . . 458 

Portrait of William McKinley 464 

Centre of Population. (Map.) 474 

Boston Public Library „ . 483 

Portrait of Louis Agassiz 484 

Portrait of Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford . . 487 

Portrait of Phillips Brooks 488 

Portrait of John Singleton Copley 491 

The Court of Honor at the Columbian Fair . . . 495 
Successive Acquisitions of Territory by the United 
States. (Two-page colored map.) . {End lining pages .) 



TO THE TEACHER. 

BY F. A. HILL. 



It is a wise plan to have the pupil read about a given subject 
in a continuous and connected way before he is given continuous 
formal lessons upon it. reading. 

This reading the teacher should guide. At the outset he 
should try to lead the learner to see that the real history of a 
people includes everything about them; that it is, Real 
therefore, an aggregate of innumerable facts ; that histor y- 
it is impossible, as it would be undesirable, for the most 
painstaking historian to present all these facts, or a millionth 
part of them ; and that whoever has anything to do with 
history is compelled to select his materials from infinite 
details. Such selection becomes possible because H ; storic 
historic facts are not of equal value. The historian ^g 3 ^' 
fixes upon those only which he thinks will help him value - 
show the grander features of a people's origin, rise, progress, 
and vicissitudes. 

The most elaborate history, therefore, is a merciless abridg- 
ment, a school history abridges such abridgment, and Wri tten 
the boy or girl who would conquer a school history a£rid^ an 
must be trained to a further abridgment still. When ment - 
it comes, then, to getting a lesson, the attention should be 
focused upon those few things that are of chief con- The pupi i» s 
sequence. These once firmly grasped become, as it aim - 
were, axes about which, as in a crystal, subordinate matters 
will tend to arrange themselves with greater or less system and 
tenacity. If such minor matters are retained in the memory 
in considerable number, very good ; if they are speedily and 
largely forgotten, as is more likely, there are usually left hints 



XX TO THE TEACHER. 

or traces of them that, however vague or shadowy, are still 
serviceable to the pupil when he would refer to them for sub- 
sequent purposes. 

And here a caution should be given about memorizing 
history. It is desirable, on the one hand, to have at com- 
Memoriz- m and the more important facts of history. It is clear, 
in g history. on t i ie t} aer hand, that the most precious things 
history has to offer may be missed by one who is chiefly em- 
ployed in memorizing it. When history is viewed as an 
assemblage of unrelated facts, conquering it naturally takes 
the form of committing it to memory. When it is looked 
upon as a development, — a chain of causes and effects, — 
it appeals more directly to the reason and understanding. 

Many, if not most, of the facts of history the pupil is des- 
tined to forget. He should be so trained, therefore, that 
Things to when the unavoidable oblivion comes, he shall yet 
be retained. re t a in something of interest in reading history, some- 
thing of power in following up a line of ordinary investiga- 
tion, something of a disposition to seek for the underlying 
causes of events, something of a grasp of the mightier ten- 
dencies and movements of history, and some inkling of that 
conception of history that makes it a teacher of the present 
out of the wealth of its past. 

Whatever methods the versatility of teachers may devise 
for class instruction, two points should not be overlooked : 
stimulation (0 tne stimulation of thought, and (2) excellence in 
of thought, reproduction. When the former is the object, the 
pupil should be encouraged to express himself freely, his in- 
adequate expression must be tenderly dealt with, and, in gen- 
eral, his mind must not be unduly burdened by anything that 
would prevent right thinking, as, for instance, by a struggle to 
repeat matter from memory. The pupil's genuine thought is 
a kind of crude or raw material which it will take time to work 
into shape. To encourage such thought, a certain sort of dis- 
tracting criticism should be avoided. 

When, however, a subject has been grasped, and it comes 
to presenting it, then a different treatment is needed. It is a 



TO THE TEACHER. XXI 

good plan to assign the pupil matter beforehand to study for 
presentation, — matter that he knows he will be called upon 
to present. His aim should be to use his own 
language freely, to recite promptly and fluently and tionof 
accurately, and to do all this with a good voice and 
a pleasing manner. The pupil should have as good a chance 
as his elders, who, if they are to speak in public, usually 
desire to make special and precise preparation for such 
speaking. The two ideals for thinking and reproducing 
should be kept distinct, at least, for a time. To think on 
one's feet and to present the results of such thinking in good 
and forcible English, — this is the flower of prolonged and 
successful discipline. 

The importance of collateral reading to the teacher can 
hardly be overstated. It is essential not only to his equip- 
ment as an instructor but to his influence over the collateral 
reading habits of his pupils. The text repeatedly readin s 
limits to a single sentence the record of events rich in life, 
picturesqueness, and color ; and much of the value and charm 
of history is missed if there is no acquaintance with this un- 
derlying wealth. The enthusiastic interest that comes to the 
teacher from such enlightenment is pretty sure to extend by 
a subtle contagion to his pupils. It stands to reason that 
sympathetic advice about reading from one who has traveled 
the recommended way and brings back glowing accounts of 
it is more likely to win young people than perfunctory direc- 
tions from one who has never been over the road at all. 

The specific directions for collateral reading given else- 
where in this book are purposely limited to a few themes 
selected from a brief list of recommended works that deal 
with the formative and more romantic periods of American 
history. If the spirit of these directions is heeded, it is be- 
lieved the interest aroused will extend in a natural way to other 
themes in the same books, if not to books of a wider list. 



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



CHAPTER I. 

ANCIENT AMERICA. 

1. The People of the United States. The people 

of the United States are a transplanted people. Of the 
citizens who voted in 1 892 for Cleveland or for Harrison, 
some were born in Europe, many were the children of 
European parents who had migrated to America, nearly 
all were descended from ancestors who three centuries 
ago were dwelling in the Old World. Now and then, 
indeed, one may come across an American citizen de- 
scended from red men, but such are very rare. We are 
European people transplanted to the soil of a New 
World. Our history until within the last nine or ten 
generations must be sought in the history of Europe, 
and chiefly in that of England. In England our lan- 
guage attained its highest perfection while the red man 
still roamed unmolested in the Adirondacks and the 
Alleghanies ; and from England our forefathers brought 
the institutions and laws out of which our state and 
national governments have since grown. 

Until within four centuries our European ancestors 
had never heard of America, and had never dreamed of 
such a thing as a continent between the western shores 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. I. 



of Europe and the eastern shores of Asia. Accordingly, 
when Europeans began coming to America in 1492, they 
The red supposed it was Asia, and as they found the 
men ; why country peopled by red men, they called these 
called in- red men "Indians." Europeans at that time 
knew very little about the inhabitants of Asia 
or India, else they would not have made such a mis- 
take. The natives of America are not especially like 
Asiatics. They are a race by themselves. They have 
lived in America for many thousand years; just how 
long nobody knows. One thing is sure, however. Be- 
fore ever white men came here, the red men had for 
long ages been spread all over North and South America, 

from Hudson Bay to 
Cape Horn, and dif- 
ferences of race had 
grown up among 
them. All alike had 
skins of a cinnamon 
color, high cheek 
bones, and intensely 
black eyes and hair, 
with little or no beard. 
But in respect of size, 
as of general appear- 
ance and manners, 
there were differ- 
ences between differ- 
ent tribes as marked 
as the difference be- 
Arab. 




TYPICAL INDIAN FACE. 1 

tween an Englishman and an 



1 Portrait of American Horse, master of ceremonies in the Sun Dance 
held by the Ogallala Sioux Indians in 1882. Selected by F. W. Putnam, 
of the Peabody Museum of Ethnology, Harvard University, as the most 
characteristic Indian face which he could find. 



§* 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



2. The Savage Indians. Some of these Indians were 
much more savage than others. There were three 
principal divisions among them : (i) savage, (2) bar- 
barous, and (3) half-civilized. In North America the 
savage Indians lived to the west of Hudson Bay, and 




SAVAGE INDIANS.* 



southwardly between the Rocky Mountains and the 
Pacific coast, as far as the northern parts of Mexico. 
The Athabaskans, the Bannocks, and the Apaches were, 
and are, specimens of savage Indians. They had little 
or no agriculture, but lived by catching fish or shooting 
birds or such game as antelopes and buffaloes. They 
were not settled in villages, but moved about from place 
to place with very rude tent-like wigwams. They wove 
excellent baskets, but did not bake pottery. 

1 From Longfellow's Hiawatha, illustrated by Frederic Remington. 



4 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. I. 



3. The Barbarous 

Indians. All of North 
America east of the 
Rocky Mountains was 
inhabited by the bar- 
barous Indians, who 
had found out how to 
scratch the soil with a 
stone hoe and raise 
certain vegetables, so 
as not to be wholly 
dependent upon hunt- 
ing and fishing. Go- 
ing eastward out of 
the range of the buf- 
falo herds, one would 
see more and more agricultural life. The most impor- 




AREAS OF THE THREE GRADES OF INDIANS 
IN NORTH AMERICA. 




BARBAROUS INDIANS. 1 

i From Longfellow's Hiawatha, illustrated by F. Remington. 



§3- 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



tant plant was maize, or " Indian corn," 1 which was not 
known in the Old World until America was discovered. 




SENECA-IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE. 2 

These Indians also raised pumpkins and squashes, beans 
and tomatoes, tobacco and sunflowers. They made 
pottery and ornamental pipes, and some tribes wove 
coarse cloth. Their tools and weapons were made of 
chipped or finely polished stones. They lived in villages 



&••••'• 



96 FT. 

GROUND-PLAN OF IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE. 

with houses fitted to last for some years. Usually these 
houses were large enough to hold from thirty to fifty fam- 
ilies in separate booths or stalls. The illustration here 
shows a frame house of the Senecas 3 covered with elm 
bark. Smoke is seen at regular intervals issuing from 

1 See my Discovery of America, i. 27-29. 

2 From Morgan's Houses and House-Life of the American Aborigines. 

8 The Senecas were one of the Iroquois tribes, and lived within the 
present limits of the State of New York. See map facing p. 8. 



6 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. I. 



five holes in the roof. Under each hole is a stone fire- 
pit in the middle of the hard earthen floor, and around 
each fire-pit are four stalls, two on each side and opening 
on the long passageway that runs through the centre of 

the house with an 
outside door at 
each end. This 
house would have 
twenty-four com- 
partments, of 
which twenty 
would hold each 
a family, while at 
each end two 
stalls were gen- 
erally reserved 
for storing pro- 
visions. Other 
tribes had dif- 
ferent styles of 
mandan round-houses. 1 nouses j tor ex- 

ample, the Man- 
dans, on the upper Missouri, lived in round frame houses 
covered with clay which hardened under the sun's rays 
and became fire-proof. Each house had a fire-pit in the 
centre, and the compartments for families were triangu- 
lar, with the points toward the centre, like the cuts of a 
pie. 

4. The Clan and the Tribe. All the families that 
lived together in the same house were supposed to be 
The Indian descended from the same female ancestor. All 
clan - the families thus related made a clan. Some- 

times there were too many to live in one house, and they 

1 From Catlin's North American Indians, i. 88. The picture is modern 
and shows a horse ; see opposite page. 




§§ 4, S- ANCIENT AMERICA. J 

occupied several houses grouped together in one neigh- 
borhood. The houses and food belonged to the clan, 
and there was no private property except weapons and 
trinkets. The clan had its own religious ceremonies, 
and was known by a name, usually of some animal, as 
Bear or Turtle ; such animals were held sacred, and 
carved images of them, called totems, served as a kind 
of emblem of the clan. 

A certain number of clans, — from three or four up to 
twenty or more, — speaking the same language, made up 
an Indian tribe. Society was completely demo- The In . 
cratic ; there were no distinctions of rank. dian tribe - 
Every clan elected its own "sachem " or civil magistrate, 
and could depose him for misconduct. Every clan also 
elected a certain number of war-chiefs. The tribe was 
governed by a council of its clan-sachems ; some tribes 
elected a head war-chief and some did not. Every mat- 
ter of importance had to be decided in the tribal council. 

5. More about the Barbarous Indians. The religion 
of these Indians was the worship of their dead ancestors, 
curiously mingled with the worship of the Sun, the 
Winds, the Lightning, and other powers of nature, usu- 
ally personified as animals. For example, Light- In( j; an 
ning was regarded as a snake, and snakes were reli s ion - 
held more or less sacred. Religious rites were a kind of 
incantation performed by men especially instructed in 
such things, and called "medicine-men." In most reli- 
gious ceremonies dancing played a great part. 

The Indians had dogs (of a poor sort) which helped 
them in the chase and served also as food ; but they had 
neither horses, asses, cows, goats, sheep, nor L^crf 
pigs, — no domesticated farm animals of any sort. domes . tlc 
Without the help of such animals it is very 
difficult to rise out of barbarism into civilized life. The 



g INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 

Indian's supply of food was too scanty to support a dense 
population. The people lived in scattered tribes, without 
any government higher than the tribe ; and hence they 
were almost always at war. Fighting was the chief busi- 

Per etual neSS of life ' and a y 0Un g man WaS n0t consid - 

warfare. er ed fit to be married until he had shown his 
prowess by killing enemies and bringing away their scalps. 
Such a kind of life tended to make men cruel and re- 
vengeful, and the Indians were unsurpassed for cruelty. 
It was their cherished custom to put captives to death 
with lingering tortures. 

6. Barbarous Tribes of the United States. The 
barbarous village Indians east of the Mississippi River are 
the ones that have played the most conspicuous part in 
the history of the United States ; for they were the In- 
dians with whom our people first came into contact, and 
against whom we had first to fight while the red man's 
power was still formidable. These Indians were divided 
Indian ^ nto three stocks or races, with languages quite 
races east distinct. First, there were the Maskoki, spread 

of the Mis- ' ' r 

sissippi. over the country south of Tennessee and from 
the Mississippi River into Florida. The prin- 
cipal tribes of Maskoki were the Chickasaws, Choctaws, 
Creeks, and Seminoles. Secondly, there were the Iro- 
quois, consisting chiefly of the Hurons north 
of Lake Erie, the Eries south of that lake, the 
Five Nations of central New York, the Susquehannocks 
of Pennsylvania, the Tuscaroras of North Carolina, and 
the Cherokees in the valley of the Tennessee. Thirdly, 
all the other tribes between the Atlantic and the Missis- 
sippi, and from the Carolinas up to Labrador, were 
Algonquins. There were also scattered Algon- 
gonqums. ^.^ tr ik es as f ar wegt ag ^ Q ^ oc ] C y Mountains. 

The most famous Algonquin tribes were the Powhatans 



6,7- 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



of Virginia, the Lenape of Delaware, the Mohegans 
(including the Pequots) and Narragansetts of New Eng- 
land, the Shawnees of the Ohio valley, and the Pottawa- 
tomies, Ottawas, 
Chippewas, and 
Sacs-and-Foxes of 
the country about 
the upper Great 
Lakes. 

Of all these bar- 
barous tribes the 
least advanced out 
of savagery was 
the Algonquin 
tribe of Chippe- 
was (sometimes 
called Ojibwas) ; 
the most advanced 
were the Iroquois 
tribes in New 
York, known as 
the Five Nations. 
Among certain 
Indian tribes be- 
fore the white 




men came, confed- 



HALF-CIVILIZED INDIANS. 1 



eracies had begun 

to be formed, in order to insure peace within the confed- 
eration, and to present a united front against all C onfedera- 
enemies. The most famous of these confed- cies - 
eracies was that of the Five Nations, and we shall meet 
with it more than once in this history. 

7. The Half-Civilized Indians. In order to complete 

1 From a painting by Julian Scott. 



IO INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 

our sketch of aboriginal America, it is necessary to say a 
few words about the half-civilized Indians, although they 
have not had much to do with the history of the United 
States. Some of them still live upon our soil, however, 
and they are very interesting people. The home of the 
half-civilized Indians is chiefly mountainous country, and 
extends from New Mexico southward as far as Chili. A 
great part of this country is so dry that constant and 
regular irrigation is needed in order to obtain crops. At 
some early time the natives learned how to bring down 
water from the mountains in sluices, and thus to irrigate 
their fields of Indian corn. They also learned how to 
build very strong fortresses of adobe, or sunburnt brick, 
and afterward of stones more or less neatly hewn. Such 
fortresses were sometimes four or five stories in height, 
and would accommodate 3,000 persons or more. Some- 
times two or more fortresses grew together into castel- 
lated towns holding the whole of a populous 

Pueblos. •■ ,„•-,, ■ ' 

tribe. I he word rueblo means sometimes such 
a single stronghold and sometimes such a castellated 
city ; and the semi-civilized Indians who live in them are 
called Pueblo Indians. It will be observed that their 
country borders upon that of the savage Indians. For 
many ages such tribes as the Apaches have been the ter- 
ror of the semi-civilized tribes, who have often built their 
pueblos in situations almost inaccessible for the sake of 
security. In former times they used here and there to 
build them high up on cliffs like eagles' nests. But in 
spite of such precautions, they have suffered much at the 
hands of the savages. 

8. Interesting Pueblo Indians. The most interest- 
ing Pueblo Indians now living in America are the Moquis, 
of northeastern Arizona, and the Zunis, of New Mexico. 
In these territories there were once a great many pueb- 



5 8- 



ANCIENT AMERICA. 



II 



los, now deserted and in ruins. In Mexico they were 
still more numerous, and formed several confederacies, 
of which the most famous was the Aztec Confederacy, 
founded about 1430. This was a league between the 




RUINED TEMPLE AT UXMAL, YUCATAN. 1 

City of Mexico and two neighboring pueblos for the 
purpose of extorting tribute from other pueblos ; and 
this work went on until the white men came and sub- 

1 This beautiful temple is in Uxmal, one of the most interesting of the 
ruined cities of Yucatan. At the time when Spaniards first visited the 
country, Uxmal was one of the principal cities of the half-civilized Mayas, 
who still dwell in Yucatan. At that time it may have been two or three 
hundred years old. As late as 1673, according to Stephens, religious 
rites were still regularly performed in this temple by the Mayas. 



12 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 

dued the whole country. The Indian city of Mexico was 
entirely destroyed, but it seems to have been a collection 
Ancient of great pueblo castles, built of stone, covered 
Mexico. w fth white gypsum, and curiously carved ; 
there were also tall pyramidal temples for sacrifices to 
the gods. All through Central America, and beyond the 
isthmus in South America, semi-civilized people much 
like those of Mexico lived in similar cities, many of which 
now present for us some of the most interesting ruins in 
the world. 

Among the Pueblo Indians, society was made up of 
clans and tribes, with the government in the council, 
very much the same as with the barbarous Indians. But 
the Pueblo tribes usually had a military chief who had 
come to be a kind of king. They had temples and orders 
of priesthood. Their tools and weapons were mostly of 
stone, but they made some use of bronze. In building 
and the arts of decoration they had gone far beyond the 
barbarous Indians. In Mexico and Central America 
they had hieroglyphic 1 or picture writing on bark and on 
a kind of paper made from the century plant. They did 
not torture prisoners to death, but sacrificed them to the 
gods. 

9. Half-Civilized Indians at their Best. The nearest 
approach to civilization in Ancient America was. achieved 
Ancient * n tne Peruvian Andes, where the tribe of Incas 
Peru - subdued neighboring tribes, and became a gov- 

erning class, or nobility, with its own chieftain, called 
especially The Inca, as king over the whole. These 
Incas founded something like an empire, and connected 
its parts with good military roads, and did something 

1 Hieroglyphic writing : a kind of writing in which ideas are conveyed 
by means of pictures of objects, or by means of symbols or signs, to which 
it is understood that certain meanings shall always belong. 



§§9, ia ANCIENT AMERICA. 1 3 

toward civilizing the barbarous people they conquered. 
There was a greater population in Peru than elsewhere. 
There were two small domestic animals, the llama, useful 
as a light beast of burden, and the alpaca, useful for his 
fleece. Besides the corn and other Indian vegetables, 
the Peruvians cultivated the potato, which was unknown 
to the rest of the world until their country was discovered 
by white men. They raised the best of cotton, and made 
very fine cotton and woolen cloths. In most of the arts 
they were superior to any other people in America, 
though they had no writing. The religion of the Incas 
was a refined sun-worship, without human sacrifices. 
They made mummies of their dead, somewhat like the 
ancient Egyptians. 

10. Ancient Indians East of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. No traces of the half-civilized Indians have been 
found in North America east of the Rocky Mountains. 
The soil, indeed, is in many places covered with relics of 
bygone generations of men who built their houses upon 
earthen mounds for defense, or who heaped up The 
mounds for burial purposes. Such mounds are Mound- 
especially abundant between the Alleghany 
Mountains and the Mississippi River. More than 2,000 
mounds have been opened, and nearly 40,000 ancient 
relics have been gathered from them ; such as stone 
arrow-heads and spades, axes and hammers, mortars and 
pestles, tools for spinning and weaving, water jugs, 
fettles, sepulchral ur*s, tobacco pipes, and articles made 
of coarse cloth. It used to be supposed that the mounds 
we/e built by some, mysterious race of civilized men who 
have vanished from the earth. It was afterward sup- 
posed that the " Mound - Builders " were half-civilized 
Indians, like those of Mexico, who once inhabited the 
Mississippi valley, but were driven southwestward by the 



14 



INTRODUCTORY. , Ch. I. 



barbarous Indians. But since the thousands of relics 
have been more carefully examined, this notion of a race 
of Mound -Builders has been steadily losing favor. 
The people who built. the mounds seem to have been not 
half -civilized but barbarous Indians, and they may have 
been the ancestors of those who were dwelling in the 
country when the white men came. 

We have next to see how and when the white men 
happened to come. 

TOPICS AND QUESTIONS. 

To the Teacher. When the subdivisions of a topic are not in the 
question form, they may be readily changed to that form by those 
who prefer it. It is a good plan to have copied at the blackboard 
in anticipation of each lesson the topics and subdivisions that belong 
to it. This reduces the memory burden for the pupil, while it em- 
phasizes the points he should think of. 

The teacher should frequently study a topic with his pupils. Let 
the text be read thoughtfully, the teacher directing the class to note 
the leading points. He should show why certain things are of 
greater moment than other things, and why it is the grasping of 
these main points rather than the reciting of the text that is the 
essence of right study. Then the teacher may frame questions to 
test the pupils' apprehension of these points. Such questions will 
be substantially in accordance with the divisions of the topic as 
presented in the book. These questions answered, the pupil may 
then, without further help, tell what he can about the subject studied. 
The guiding principle of these suggestions to the teacher is that 
his pressure upon the pupil should take the direction of stimulating 
his thought rather than of directly training his memory, not forget- 
ting, however, that whatever helps the former will incidentally aid 
the latter. 

I. The People of the United States. 
i. The ancestors of most of us. 

2. Our history, language, and institutions. 

3. What America at first was thought to be. 

4. Why the red men were called Indians. 

5. How long the Indians have lived in America. 



Ch. I. ANCIENT AMERICA. 1 5 

2. The Savage Indians. 

i. Where they lived. 
2. How they lived. 

3. The Barbarous Indians. 

1. Where they lived. 

2. Their agriculture and manufactures. 

3. Their villages and houses. 

4. The difference between the Seneca long-house and the Man- 

dan round-house. 

4. The Clan and the Tribe. 

1. The families of the clan. 

2. The property of the clan. 

3. The name of the clan. 

4. The rulers of the clan. 

5. The make-up of the tribe. 

6. The rulers of the tribe. 

5. More about the Barbarous Indians. 

1. What they worshiped. 

2. Their lack of domestic animals. 

3. What they thought of fighting. 

4. Their cruelty in war. 

6. Barbarous Tribes of the United States. 

1. The Maskoki. 

2. The Iroquois. 

3. The Algonquins. 

4. The tribe nearest savagery. 

5. The tribes most advanced. 

6. Confederacies. 

7. The Half-Civilized Indians. 

1. Their country. 

2. Their houses. 

3. The word pueblo. 

4. Pueblo Indians. 

5. Their dread of the Apaches. 

6. Their cliff-houses. 

8. Interesting Pueblo Indians. 

1. The Moquis and Zunis. 

2. The Aztec Confederacy. 

3. The Indian city of Mexico. 

4. The people of Central America. 



l6 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 

5. How the Pueblo Indians compare with the barbarous 
Indians 

(a) in government, (b) in the arts, (c) in writing, and 
(d) in treating prisoners. 
9. Half-Civilized Indians at their Best. 

1. The Peruvian tribe of Incas. 

2. Their achievements in the arts and sciences. 

10. Ancient Indians East of the Rocky Mountains. 

1. Relics of the Mound-Builders. 

2. The first supposition about them. 

3. The next supposition about them. 

4. The present drift of thought about them. 

suggestive questions and directions. 
The object of these questions and directions is to stimulate read- 
ing, thinking, and, in a modest way, investigating. Young minds 
cannot be expected to engage in difficult research. Still they should 
be trained, even while they are in the grammar schools, to look up 
simple matters for themselves. Every school should have a small 
working library for the study of American history. Investigation 
may begin in such a library. It may extend to the public library, 
and, in favored families, to the books at home. Some of the ques- 
tions here asked may be answered from the text, some from a large 
dictionary or an encyclopaedia, some by intelligent persons whom 
the pupils may consult, and some out of one's sound sense. Do 
not try to have any one answer them all. Assign single topics to 
different pupils to report on at a subsequent time. Reserve some 
for class development under the teacher's guidance. It is not 
necessary to settle all the questions that come up. The point to be 
gained is not so much the accumulation of facts as the production 
of an inquiring turn of mind. 

1. What is a native? What is a foreigner? What is a citizen? 

(See the Constitution of the United States, 14th amendment.) 
What is an alien ? Can one be a native and a foreigner at 
the same time ? A citizen and a foreigner ? An alien and a 
citizen ? 

2. Imagine an Indian passing from a savage to a civilized state. 

When does he cease to be savage ? To be barbarous ? To 
be half-civilized ? 



Ch. I. ANCIENT AMERICA. 1 7 

3. Tell about any Indians that may be iiving in your State. Tell 

about any Indians you may have seen. 

4. What makes it more and more difficult for Indians to lead a 

savage life in the United States? Is there any game where 
you live ? Was it right for the Indian to kill game anywhere ? 
Would it be right for you to do so ? What makes the differ- 
ence ? 

5. What signs of Indians might one expect to find where they 

have long ceased to live ? What signs of them would natu- 
rally disappear in time ? 

6. Visit a collection of Indian relics, if practicable, and report on 

what you see. 

7. Are the Indians that Cooper tells about in his Leather Slocking 

Tales {The Deer slayer, The Last of the Mohicans, and others) 
true and real ones, or rather better ? Why do you think so ? 

8. What genuine Indian customs are described in Longfellow's 

Hiawatha ? (Speak of pipe-making, picture-writing, canoe- 
building, etc.) 

9. Is it a picture of savage or of barbarous life that Longfellow 

gives us in "Blessing the Cornfields"? (Hiawatha, xiii.) 
Why? 

10. Compare a modern apartment house with a Seneca long-house. 

What resemblances and differences occur to you ? 

11. Suppose one is called upon, as an artist, to paint three Indian 

groups, — one under savage conditions, the second under 
barbarous conditions, and the third under half-civilized con' 
ditions ; mention some things from the text that he ought to 
put into each picture and some things that he ought to keep 
out. Are the pictures in the text true to the kinds of life 
they are meant to show ? 

12. Who owned this country before the white men took possession 

of it ? Was it right for them to take it by force ? Ought they 
to have bought it ? Did they take possession of it for them- 
selves as individuals ? If to-day we hold land that was un- 
justly taken from the Indians centuries ago, is our title to it 
good ? May not the Indians themselves have seized by force 
the land that the white men subsequently took from them ? 

13. Does the fact that one nation or race can use land to better ad- 

vantage than another make it right for the former to take 
such land by force ? 



l8 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. I. 



TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

In selecting topics for collateral reading, it has been thought 
wise to limit them to a list of books so small and inexpensive that 
the humblest school may easily obtain them ; and to make them so 
definite, both in subjects and in the places where they are to be 
looked for, that there can be no excuse for ignoring them. They 
are selected for their interest, their picturesqueness, and the light 
they shed on the text ; and it is believed that if pupils can be led 
to read them, many, perhaps the most of them, may become con- 
scious of a pleasure strong enough to lead them to more extensive 
reading in other parts of the same books, or in the books of a 
more generous list. 

The subjects of Ancient America and The Discovery of Amer- 
ica are treated fully in Fiske's The Discovery of America, two vol- 
umes, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. The following topics are 
particularly helpful to the teacher and to his maturer pupils : 

1. Signs of the ancient occupation of America (a) in the shell 

mounds on the seacoast, {b) in the stone implements of cer- 
tain gravel beds, and (c) in an occasional skull, 4-1 1. 

2. The Eskimos and the Cave men, 16-18. 

3. Signs of savagery, 24, 25. 

4. Three stages of savage life, 26. 

5. Three stages of barbarism, 27-32. 

6. The Iroquois tribes, 44-47. 

7. The barbarism of the great body of aborigines as shown in their 

villages, weapons, horticulture, warfare, cruelty, morality, 
and religion, 48-52. 

8. The Iroquois long-houses, 64-70. 

9. The Mandan round-houses, 79-82. 

10. The ruined cities of Central America, 131 -139. 

11. The mysterious Mound-Builders, 140-146. 






CHAPTER IT. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

11. The Voyages of the Northmen. The time when 
people from the civilized countries of the Old World first 
visited the shores of America is not positively known. 
Vague stories have been current of voyages to North 
America made long ago by Arabs or Irishmen, or others, 
across the Atlantic, or by Chinese junks by way of the 
Aleutian Islands a thousand years before Columbus. We 
cannot say positively that such things might not have 
happened, but there is no evidence to warrant us in 
believing that they ever did happen. 
. The first really historical account of Europeans visit- 
ing America is found in three Icelandic manuscripts 
written from one to two centuries before the time of 
Columbus. These manuscripts give accounts of the 
founding of a colony in Greenland by a Norwegian 
named Eric the Red, in the year 986. The inhabitants 
of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, usually known as the 
Northmen, were at that time the most skillful TheNorth . 
and daring sailors in the world. In their long men - 
ships — like long boats propelled with oars and sails — they 
made their way to such distant places as Constantinople, 
and even through arctic waters to the White Sea and to 
Baffin's Bay. In 874 they settled Iceland, and in 986 
they founded on the southwestern coast of Greenland, 
near Cape Farewell, a colony which lasted until the fif- 
teenth century, and has left behind it the interesting ruins 



20 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch.IL 



of several stone-built villages and churches. Seamen 
sailing to this colony from Iceland were driven out of 
their way, and caught glimpses of the coast of Labrador. 
In the year iooo Leif, son of Eric the Red, sailed from 
Greenland with one ship and a crew of thirty-five men, to 
see what he could find on this coast. He stopped and 
landed at several points, the last of which he called Vin- 
land (Vine-land ) because he found quantities of 
wild grapes there. This place was probably 
somewhere on the coast of Massachusetts Bay. During 



Vinland. 




NORSE SHIPS. 1 

the next twelve years several voyages were made to Vin- 
land, chiefly for timber, of which there was a scarcity in 
Greenland. One of the explorers, Thorfinn Karlsefni, 
went with three ships, one hundred and sixty men, and a 
number of cattle, intending to found a colony in Vinland 

1 From a drawing by M. J. Burns. 



§§ ii, 12. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 21 

But the Indians slew several of his people, and made so 
much trouble for him that after three years he gave up 
his enterprise and went away. Our Icelandic chronicles, 1 
which are clearly based on the reports of eye-witnesses, 
give vivid and accurate accounts of the Indians and their 
peculiar methods of trading and fighting, besides men- 
tioning many of the animals, plants, and fish charac- 
teristic of this coast. They do not mention any further 
attempts to found a colony, though occasional voyages 
seem to have been made to Vinland for timber. Al- 
though the Northmen probably made a few flying visits 
to the coast of Massachusetts, there is no reason for be- 
lieving that they ever made a settlement south of Davis 
Strait. It is indeed very common, almost anywhere 
upon the New England coast, for somebody to point to 
some queer old heap of stones or the remnant of some 
forgotten barn-cellar, and ask if it is not a " relic of the 
Northmen." But no such relic has yet been found. 2 

12. Trade between Europe and Asia. These Vin- 
land voyages attracted no notice in Europe, and were 
soon forgotten even in Iceland. People were too igno- 
rant to feel much interest in remote seas and lands, 
wherever they might be. But the next four hundred 
years saw a slow but steady change. People began to 
feel a great and growing interest in Asia. 

From the earliest times there had been more or less 



1 See No. 31 of the Old South Leaflets for extracts from the saga, or 
story, of Eric the Red, one of the Icelandic chronicles referred to in the 
text. The teacher should read Fiske's The Discovery of America, \, 
194-226. [F. a. H.] 

2 The most famous of the supposed relics of the Northmen were, (1) a 
curious stone tower at Newport, R. I., now known to be the ruin of a 
stone windmill built about 1675 by Benedict Arnold, governor of Rhode 
Island ; (2) an inscription in picture-writing upon Dighton Rock, near 
Taunton, Mass., now known to have been the work of Algonquin Indians. 



22 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II. 



trade between Europe and Asia by ship and caravan, by 
way of Egypt and the Red Sea, or across Syria to the 
Persian Gulf, or by way of the Black and Caspian seas. 
After the Crusades 1 (a. d. 1096-1291) had brought the 
peoples of the north and west of Europe into somewhat 
closer knowledge of the Oriental world, this trade in- 
creased rapidly. During the thirteenth and fourteenth 



U R O P E 
VENICE 




OLD ROUTES OF TRADE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA. 



centuries the blue Mediterranean was covered with ships 
carrying European metals, wood, and pitch to Alexan- 
dria and other eastern seaports, and returning to the 

1 The Crusades were great military expeditions organized by the Chris- 
tians of Europe to defend the rights of pilgrimage to Jerusalem and other 
places hallowed by events in the Saviour's life, and ultimately to recover 
the Holy Land from the control of the Mahometans. These expedi- 
tions began with intense enthusiasm, engaged vast numbers of men, led 
to terrible hardships and loss of life, and usually ended in disaster. The 
soldiers were called crusaders because they wore the sign of the cross. 
[F. A. H.] 



§§ 12, i 3 . THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 23 

Italian coasts with silks and cottons, pearls and spices. 
On such trade Genoa, Pisa, and Venice waxed rich and 
powerful. But as the barbarous Turks ex- old routes 
tended their sway over the Eastern Empire, off^the" 1 * 
until in 1453 they completed their conquest of Turks - 
it, these avenues of trade were gradually closed, and the 
Mediterranean became more and more an unsafe place 
for Christian vessels. 

At about the same time the western nations of Europe 
were becoming more united within themselves, stronger, 
richer, and more enterprising. There was less private 
war than formerly, respect for law had somewhat in- 
creased, capital was somewhat safer, and there was a 
growing demand for comforts and luxuries. It was, 
therefore, just as the volume of trade with Asia was 
rapidly swelling that the routes into Asia were cut off by 
the piratical Turks. It became necessary to Necessity 
find other routes than those hitherto traversed, of findin s 

an ocean 

and naturally the first attempt was to see what route to 
could be done by sailing down the west coast 
of Africa. Work in this direction was begun in 141 8 
by Prince Henry of Portugal, celebrated as Henry the 
Navigator ; but it was slow work. Ocean navigation in 
those days was clothed with all sorts of imaginary 
terrors, and, moreover, people were not wonted to equip- 
ping and victualing ships for long voyages. One Portu- 
guese captain would venture a few hundred miles farther 
than his predecessor and then turn back. It was not 
until 1 47 1 that the equator was reached and crossed, and 
still there seemed to be no end to Africa ! 

13. Two Famous Geographers. Very little was really 
known in those days about the world outside of Europe. 
Two books on geography, both written many centuries 
before, were considered great authorities on all disputed 



24 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II. 



points. One of these books was written in Greek about 
Ancient a. d. 150, by Claudius Ptolemy, a native of 
vai d ide e a d sof Egypt; the other was written in Latin still 
geography, earlier, about a. d. 50, by Pomponius Mela, a 
native of Spain. A glance at the two maps here in- 
serted 2 will show how both these geographers believed in 
the existence of a great unvisited continent south of the 
equator ; only, Ptolemy believed this imaginary continent 
to be joined to Africa and to Asia, while Mela believed 
it to be separated by an ocean intervening. According 
to Ptolemy, it would be impossible to sail from Spain 
around Africa into the Indian Ocean. According to 
Mela, such a voyage could be made without even cross- 
ing the equator. Therefore, when, in 1471, Portuguese 
sailors crossed the equator without finding an end to the 
African coast, the prospect was discouraging. Ptolemy 




EQUATOR 

UNKNOWN LAND 



PTOLEMY'S IDEA OK THE WORLD, A. D. 150. 

might turn out to be right ; and at any rate a voyage to 
Asia in this direction was going to be a very long voyage. 
Some inquiring minds began to ask if there could possi- 
bly be any shorter route. Among these inquiring spirits 

1 Both are greatly simplified by the omission of details. 



i3> J 4- 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



25 



was Christopher Columbus, 1 a native of Genoa, who came 
to Lisbon about 1470 and took part in some of the ex- 
ploring voyages on the African coast. The solution of 
the question was very startling. 




L ° Pp °s,te worv.0 



°" FOURTH P* Rt 



MELA'S IDEA OF THE WORLD, A. D. 50. 

14. The Earth a Round Ball. Three centuries before 
the Christian era, Aristotle 2 had proved that the earth is 
a round ball, and nearly all learned ancient writers after 
him adopted this view. Ptolemy held that the circum- 
ference of the earth at the equator is about 21,600 miles. 
In the time of Columbus nearly all learned men were 
clergymen, and for the most part they believed as they 
were taught by Aristotle and Ptolemy ; but the general 
public, including many ignorant clergymen, believed that 
the earth was a flat plane surface. But whether the earth 

1 In Italian the name is Cristoforo Colombo ; in Spanish it is Cristc- 
val Colon. 

2 A famous Greek philosopher, the most learned man of his times, and 
one of the greatest thinkers that ever lived. His writings covered nearly 
the entire range of human knowledge. 



26 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. II. 

was round or flat, the idea of sailing to the west in order 
Sailing to & et to the east was ver y startling when it 
west in was proposed to put it into practice. It is one 
get to the thing to maintain a theory with your lips or 
your pen, and it is quite another thing to risk 
your life in proving that it is practically true. If the earth 
is really a globe, then it ought to be possible to sail west- 
ward across the Atlantic Ocean to the eastern shores 
of Asia. Soon after 147 1 this idea occurred to several 
persons, one of whom was Columbus ; and Columbus 
soon made up his mind to try the experiment. 

The whole point of the enterprise lay in the distance 
to be traversed. The desired goal was the remote parts 
of Asia, whence came silks and pearls and 
of cohfm- spices, — what we know as China, and Japan, 
k>no- : wouTd an d tne East Indies. Was the shortest route 
the voyage to this goal westward or southward ? The Por- 
tuguese were sailing southward in the hope of 
passing around Africa to Hindustan ; would it be shorter 
to sail westward in the hope of getting straight to Japan ? 
Columbus asked advice from the famous astronomer 
Toscanelli, 1 who assured him that it would be shorter. 
So little was really known about the length of Asia that 
Toscanelli imagined that continent to extend eastward 
very near to where we now know Lower California to 
be. As for Japan, people had heard of such an island 
kingdom about a thousand miles east of China. The 
name was usually pronounced Chipango, and was often 
written Cipango. Toscanelli thought it must be about 
where we now know the Gulf of Mexico to be. He made 
a map to illustrate his view of the case, and sent it to 
Columbus, who prized it highly, and carried it with him 

1 Toscanelli was born in Florence in 1397. The map in the text has 
been simplified so that its essential features may be more easily grasped. 



§§ i4, i5- 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



27 



on his first voyage of discovery. He intended from the 
first to make the Canary Islands his point of departure, 




TOSCANELLl'S MAP (1474) USED BY COLUMBUS ON HIS FIRST VOYAGE. 

and we can now see that if Japan had been where he 
supposed it was, his whole plan was right ; for the voy- 
age from the Canaries into the Gulf of Mexico is much 
shorter than the voyage around the Cape of Good Hope 
to India. 

15. The Great Voyage of Columbus. Such was the 
origin of Columbus's plan ; he thought that the shortest 
route to Asia would be found by sailing westward across 
the Atlantic Ocean. In those days the help of some 
government was necessary for such a costly enterprise, 
and it was a long time before Columbus was able to get 
such help. He tried Portugal first, and then Spain, and 
sent his brother to seek aid first from England and then 
from France. At length he succeeded in making an 
arrangement with the Spanish sovereigns, Fer- First 
dinand and Isabella, and three small ships were age°fCo- 

*■ nimbus 

fitted out for him and manned with ninety men. across the 

Atlantic 

On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus sailed 

from the little port of Palos for the Canaries. After 

some delay there, he set sail on the 6th of September 



28 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch.IL 



with his prows turned westward into the unknown ocean. 
It was the most daring thing that had ever been done. 
Other brave mariners had sailed many a league along 
strange coasts, and won deserved renown ; but Colum- 




Copyrighted by L. Prang & Co. 



SHIPS OF COLUMBUS. 



bus was the first to bid good-by to the land and steer 
straight into the trackless ocean in reliance upon a scien- 
tific theory. This fact is of itself enough to make him 
one of the most sublime figures in history. 

After a voyage of thirty-five days land was discovered 
at two o'clock in the morning of October 12, 1 1492. It 
was one of the Bahama Islands, but which one is not 
known. Before returning to Spain Columbus sailed along 
the shores of Cuba and Hayti, landing here and there 
and sending parties inland to examine the country. He 
was astonished at not finding splendid cities such as he 
had expected to find in Asia. But he had no doubt that 
he had reached Japan or some part of Asia. 

1 In old style, October 12 ; in new style, October 21. See Appendix H. 



5 if>. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



2 9 



16. The Second and Third Voyages of Columbus. 

His return home with this news aroused great excite- 
ment in Spain and Portugal, and among intelligent 
mariners in England and elsewhere. On his 
second voyage, in September, 1493, it was diffi- 
cult to restrain people from embarking with him. Every- 
body expected to get rich in a moment. A colony was 
founded upon the island of Hayti, but no silks or spices 
or precious stones were found, nor any gold as yet. On 



His second 
voyage. 




COLUMBUS.* 

the other hand, hard labor had to be endured, as well as 
hunger and sickness, and the disappointed colonists laid 
all the blame upon the " foreign upstart," Columbus. 
As his enterprise, moreover, did not bring money into 
1 After a painting in the Ministry of Marine at Madrid. 



30 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

the treasury, but entailed new expenses, he soon lost 
favor at court, and his troubles were many. He cruised 
His third among the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and on 
voyage. hi s third voyage, in 1498, saw land which we 
now know to have been the coast of South America from 
the mouth of the Orinoco westward for a short distance. 
He never doubted that all this was Asia, but wondered 
why he did not find Asia's riches. 

17. Other Memorable Voyages. Meanwhile other 
navigators had been crossing the Atlantic. John Cabot, 
Voyages of a na tive of Genoa, in the service of Henry VII., 
theCabots. king of England, sailed from Bristol in May, 
1497, in one ship with eighteen men. On the 24th of 
June he came upon the coast of North America at some 
point difficult to determine. Some think it was at Cape 
Breton Island, others would have it on the coast of Lab- 
rador. John Cabot's son, Sebastian, may have been with 
him on this voyage. In April, 1498, the father and son 
set out with five or six ships upon a second voyage, and 
explored some part of the North American coast. In 
September, one of these ships put into an Irish port, 
much the worse for wear ; when the others returned we 
do not know ; Sebastian Cabot lived for sixty years after 
this, but we hear no more of his father. 

Recent researches have made it nearly certain that an 

expedition sailed from Cadiz May 10, 1497, and returned 

, to that port October 1 5, 1498, under command of 

Voyages of r 

Pinzonand Vincent Pinzon, who had commanded one of the 
espucms. s kjp S - n c i um k us ' s first voyage. A Florentine 
merchant, skilled in astronomy and navigation, named 
Amerigo Vespucci, but better known by his Latinized 
name as Americus Vespucius, accompanied Pinzon, and 
has left, in a letter to one of his friends, an account of such 
parts of the voyage as he thought would interest the. friend. 



§17. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 31 

They first saw land near Cape Honduras late in June ; 
they skirted part of the Gulf of Mexico, passed between 
Cuba and Florida, and came up the Atlantic coast as far, 
perhaps, as Chesapeake Bay, whence they returned to 
Spain after touching at one of the Bermuda Islands and 
capturing a cargo of slaves there. 

There is much obscurity about these voyages of Pinzon 
and the Cabots, because they were not followed up until 
people had time to forget about them. No rich cities, no 
pearls or gold were discovered on these strange coasts ; 
this " Asia" was very different from what had been ex- 
pected ! Just at this time news was brought to Lisbon 
that turned all men's eyes to the south. Vasco Vo yage of 
da Gama started from that port in 1497, sailed Gama> 
around the Cape of Good Hope to the coast of Hindu- 
stan, and returned in the summer of 1499, with his ships 
loaded with pepper and spices, rubies and emeralds, silks 
and satins, ivory and bronzes. There was no doubt as to 
where he had been. Portugal had reached the goal after 
all, and not Spain ! Navigators stopped hunting in the 
Atlantic Ocean for Japan and the seaports of China. 
Columbus was now more than ever discredited, and tried 
to redeem his reputation by finding a strait leading into 
the Indian Ocean from the Caribbean Sea, for he im- 
agined Malacca as somewhere near the place where we 
know Panama to be. On his fourth and last Fourth 
voyage (1 502-1 504), he explored the coasts of r°^ b °g 
Honduras and Veragua in the hope of finding 
such a strait. Of course he found none, and after terri- 
ble hardships returned to Spain, to die, poor and broken- 
hearted, at Valladolid, May 20, 1506. In spite of his 
failure to find the riches of Asia, he died in the belief 
that he had found the shortest route thither. If he could 
have been told that he had only discovered a continent 



32 



INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 



hitherto unknown, it would doubtless have added fresh 
bitterness to death. 

18. The Second and Third Voyages of Vespucius. 
There was nobody who could have given such information 
to Columbus in 1 506, but many navigators were carrying 
Second on t ^ ie wor ^ °^ discovery. The most famous of 
voyage of these was Americus Vespucius. In 1499, he 

Vespucius. 

went as one of the pilots on a voyage upon the 
northern coast of South America. The coast Indians 
not uncommonly built their wooden villages on piles over 
the water, with bridges from house to house. Such a 
village in the Gulf of Maracaibo reminded the Spanish 
sailors of Venice, and they called it Venezuela (" little 
Venice "), a name which has since been extended to 
cover a vast country. The next year Pinzon struck the 
Brazilian coast near Pernambuco, and sailing northward 
discovered the Amazon. At that time Americus passed 
into the service of Portugal, and it is worth our while to 
notice the way in which this came about. 

The discovery of land in the western ocean in 1492 
made it necessary to adopt some rule by which Spain 
and Portugal might be prevented from quarreling over 
such coasts as their mariners might discover. The rule 
finally adopted in 1494 was sanctioned by Pope Alexander 
VI. A meridian was selected 370 leagues west of the 
r Cape Verde Islands, and was called " the Line 

The Line of ^ ' 

Demarca- of Demarcation. All heathen coasts that 
had been discovered, or that might be discov- 
ered, to the east of that line were to be at the disposal of 
Portugal ; all to the west of it were to belong to Spain. 
Well, we have seen how Gama came back from Hindu- 
voyageof stan m H99> loaded with treasures. Within a 
Cabrai. f ew m0 nths, a fleet of thirteen Portuguese ships, 
commanded by Cabrai, started for Hindustan. Instead 



§iS. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



33 



of hugging the African coast, Cabral kept out to sea 
perhaps further than he realized, and on April 22, 1500, 
he came upon land to starboard. It was the Brazilian 
coast near Porto Seguro, and Cabral was right in believ- 




AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. 1 

ing that it lay east of the Line of Demarcation. That 
was the way in which Brazil came to be a Portuguese 
country, while all the rest of the New World fell to the 
share of Spain as far as she was able to occupy it. 

Cabral sent one of his ships back to Lisbon with the 
news. The king contrived to secure the services of 
Vespucius as a pilot already familiar with the western 
waters. Three ships sailed in May, 1501, with Americus 

1 From a very old print reproduced in Allgemeine geographische Ephe- 
meriden, Weimar, 1S07, vol. xxiii. 



34 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

for chief pilot. They found the Brazilian coast at 
Third vo Cape San Roque, and explored it very thor- 
ageofVes- oughly as far as the mouth of the river La 
Plata. They were now too far west to find 
anything for Portugal, so Vespucius headed southeasterly 
and kept on without finding land until he reached the 
island of South Georgia, about 1,200 miles east of Cape 
Horn. There the Antarctic cold and floating ice drove 
them back, and they returned to Lisbon. No mariners 
had ever been nearly so far south before. 

19. The Origin of the Name America. This voyage 
made a great sensation in Europe. It proved the exist- 
ence of an inhabited continent, hitherto ' unvisited by 
civilized man, in the southern hemisphere. What could 
it be ? If you look back at the Mela map on page 25, 
you will see how it was regarded. Mela believed there 
was a great southern continent, which he called " Oppo- 
site World." Geographers often called it the "Fourth 
Part ; " Europe, Asia, Africa were three parts of the 
earth, and Mela's southern continent was the fourth. 
Nobody had ever visited this Fourth Part, and many 
people doubted its existence. Now Americus was sup- 
posed to have proved its existence. It was thought that 
Columbus and Cabot had reached Asia, and that Ameri- 
cus had coasted along a great continent south of Asia. 
The coast of Brazil was naturally supposed to be the 
coast of the Fourth Part. In 1 507, a German professor, 
named Martin Waldseem tiller, in a little treatise on 
geography, observed that he did not see why the Fourth 
Part should not be called America after its discoverer, 
Americus. At that time Columbus was not supposed to 
have discovered a new part of the world, but only a new 
route to Asia. Waldseemiiller did not intend any injus- 
tice to Columbus. In consequence of his suggestion, the 



19, 20. 



THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 



35 



name "America" came to be applied to the coast of 
Brazil south of the equator. After some years it was 
put upon maps. At first it was equivalent to Brazil ; 
but it came to be equivalent to South America, and was 
finally applied to the northern continent also. 

20. The "Work of Discovery Completed. Vespucius 
made three more voyages. He returned to the ser- 
vice of Spain, was advanced to the highest position in 
the Spanish ma- 
rine, and died 
in February, 
15 12. Five 

years after his 
death a Euro- 
pean ship for 
the first time 
sailed through 
the Indian 

Ocean and on 
to the east- 
ern shores of 
China. It was 
a Portuguese 
ship. Thus, in 
1 5 17, it was 
proved to be a 
long way from China to the coasts visited by Columbus 
and Vespucius. In 15 13, Balboa had looked 
down from a lofty peak in Darien upon what 
we now know as the Pacific Ocean. In 15 19, 
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese captain in 
command of five Spanish ships, sailed from 
Spain to find a passage through the Vespucius continent, 

1 From Navarrete's Coleccion de Viages, torn. iv. 




MAGELLAN.! 



How the 

Pacific 

Ocean was 

discovered 

and 

crossed. 



36 



INTRODUCTORY. 



Ch. II. 



and a westward route to the Indian Ocean. He passed 
through the strait that bears his name, and in spite of 
mutiny, scurvy, and starvation, crossed the vast Pacific, 
in the most astonishing voyage that ever was made. He 
was killed by savages in the Philippine Islands, but one 
of his ships arrived in Spain in 1522, after completing 
the first circumnavigation of the earth. 

In spite of this voyage of Magellan the idea of a con- 
siow com- nection between America and Asia was slow in 
fhfworjfof disappearing. Within forty years from the 
discovery, death of Columbus the shape of South America 
was quite well known, but the knowledge of North 
America advanced much more slowly. Many who be- 
lieved it to be distinct from Asia regarded it as merely 
a thin barrier of land through which a strait into the 




ROUTES OF THE FOUR GREATEST VOYAGES. 

Pacific Ocean might be found. It took long inland 
journeys to reveal the enormous width of the northern 
continent } and it took voyages in the northern Pacific to 
show its true relations to Asia. It was not until 1728 



CH. II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 37 

that Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia, discovered the strait that bears his name. 

topics and questions. 

11. The Voyages of the Northmen. 

1. The first historical accounts of voyages to America. 

2. Who were the Northmen ? 

3. Their settlement of Iceland and Greenland. 

4. Give an account of the voyage of Leif. 

5. Where was Vinland, and why was it so named ? 

6. Tell about Karlsefni's colony and its fate. 

7. Why are the Icelandic chronicles thought to be true? 

8. Was New England really settled by the Northmen? 

12. Trade Between Europe and Asia. 

1. Why did the Vinland voyages interest Europe so little? 

2. What trade had Europe carried on from ancient times ? 

3. What effect had the Crusades on this trade ? 

4. Why did it become important to find a new route to Asia ? 

5. How did the Portuguese try to get there ? 

13. Two Famous Geographers. 

1. Ptolemy and his idea of the world. 

2. Mela and his idea of the world. 

3. Ptolemy's belief about sailing from Spain around Africa. 

4. Mela's belief about sailing from Spain around Africa. 

5. How did the question of a shorter route arise ? 

14. The Earth a Round Ball. 

1. What Aristotle and Ptolemy thought about the earth's 

shape. 

2. What learned people thought about it in Columbus's time. 

3. What ignorant people thought about it. 

4. How did the scheme of reaching the east, by sailing west, 

strike people ? 

5. How did Toscanelli locate Asia and Japan ? 

15. The Great Voyage of Columbus. 

1. Royal help at last. 

2. The fleet and the crew. 

3. The departure. 

4. Wherein Columbus surpassed others. 

5. The discovery of land. 

6. What perplexed Columbus. 



38 INTRODUCTORY. Ch. IL 

16. The Second and Third Voyages of Columbus. 

1. The pressure to embark with Columbus. 

2. How Columbus lost favor with the colonists. 

3. What he discovered on his third voyage. 

4. His continued belief and wonder. 

17. Other Memorable Voyages. 

1. Those of the Cabots. 

a. In whose service ? 

b. The coasts explored. 

2. That of Pinzon. 

a. The coasts visited. 

b. His famous companion. 

3. That of Garaa. 

a. The country visited. 

b. The route taken. 

c. The treasures brought back. 

d. The effect on men's thoughts. ' 

4. The last by Columbus. ■ 

a. His failing reputation. 

b. His aim in this voyage. 

c. His hardships and death. 

d. His dying belief. 

18. The Second and Third Voyages of Vespucius. 

1. The story of his first voyage reviewed (1497--1498). 

2. The coasts visited on his second voyage (1 499-1 500). 

3. The " Line of Demarcation." 

4. The purpose of Cabral's voyage in 1 500. 

5. How Brazil came to belong to Portugal. 

6. The purpose of Vespucius's third voyage. 

7. Show how this purpose shaped the voyage. 

19. The Origin of the Name America. 

1. Why Europe was excited over Vespucius's third voyage. 

2. The " Opposite World " or " Fourth Part." , 

3. What Vespucius was supposed to have discovered. 

4. The name given to this Fourth Part. 

5. The gradual extension of the name. 

20. The Work of Discovery Completed. 

1. The first proof that it is a long way west to China. 

2. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

3. The first voyage around the world. 



Cn. II. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 39 

4. The growth of knowledge about South and North America. 

5. The final proof of their separation from Asia. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Mention some facts in geography not known in 1492. 

2. Make out a table of the discoveries described in the text: 



LAND DISCOVERED. 


BY WHOM. 


WHEN. 


FOR WHOM. 











3. Trace each voyage on the map. 

4. How may a country already inhabited be said to be discovered ? 

5. Did Vespucius himself in any way wrong Columbus ? 

6. Are the days of discovery in geography gone by ? If not, tell 

in what directions discoveries are still looked for. 

7. What is the favorite modern scheme of a short route to Asia ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The Disco-very of America: 

1. Voyages of the Northmen to Vinland, i. 164-172. 

2. The ships of the Vikings, i. 172-175. 

3. The Northmen and the Skraelings, i. 185-192. 

4. Obstacles to navigation in the fifteenth century, i. 309-316. 

5. The first voyage of Columbus,.!. 419-445. 

6. The last voyage of Columbus, i. 505-513. 

7. Vespucius and the "New World," ii. 96-108. 

For those teachers who would like to encourage something like 
original work on the part of their abler pupils, the following Old 
South Leaflets on the discovery of America furnish admirable ma- 
terial. They are prepared by Mr. Edwin D. Mead, and published 
by Directors of Old South Work, Old South Meeting House, Bos- 
ton, at five cents a copy, or three dollars per hundred. No. 29, The 
Discovery of America, from the Life of Columbus, by his son Ferdi- 
nand Columbus; No. 30, Strab&s Introduction to Geography ; No. 

31, The Voyages to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red; No. 

32. Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java; No. 33, Columbus's 
Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First Voyage and Discov- 
ery; No. 34, Americus Vespucius 's Account of his First Voyage. 



COLONIZATION OP NORTH AMERICA. 
1493-1763. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE SPANIARDS. I^^S^S' 

21. The Spanish Conquest of the Half-Civilized In- 
dians. Like Saul, who went forth to seek his father's 
stray asses and found a kingdom, the great mariners of 
the fifteenth century achieved something very different 
from what they were dreaming of. They set Out to find 
new routes for trade with China and India, and without 
Aims and knowing it they discovered a New World in 
theSMnish which to plant European civilization. Com- 
discoverers. me rcial and religious motives — the desire to 
make money and to save souls — governed the earliest 
adventurers upon American soil. The Spaniards, who 
were first in the field, sought diligently for the rich cities 
of eastern Asia of which they had heard. In 15 17-19, 
they made their way into Yucatan and Mexico, where 
they found the strange-looking fortified towns of the half- 
civilized Indians and mistook them for Asiatic cities. In 
the course of a few years the Spaniards discovered and 
conquered the whole region inhabited by semi-civilized 
Indians, from' Mexico down to Chili, except at the two 
extreme ends. In southern Chili they encountered a 
race of Indians who could not be conquered. These 
Indians, the Araucanians, are to-day quite civilized, and 
form a part of the republic of Chili, retaining their own 



THE SPANIARDS. 



41 



self-government. As for the northern end of the semi- 
civilized region, we shall presently see what happened 
there. 

In Mexico and Peru the Spaniards found great quanti- 
ties of gold and silver. They settled in these countries 
in small numbers as conquerors ruling over a large native 
population. They converted the Indians to 
Christianity and introduced Spanish laws and settlements 
customs to some extent. The chief interest of in America> 
the Spanish government in its American possessions was 
their gold and silver. Some of the richest mines were at 
Potosi, in the Bolivian Andes. To prevent other nations 
from approaching these mines from the Atlantic coast by 
way of the river La Plata, the Spaniards founded colonies 
upon that river and near its mouth, which afterward 
developed into the states of Paraguay, Uruguay, and 
Buenos Ayres. They also made settlements upon the 
coast of Venezuela because it abounds in rich pearl-fish- 
eries. Except for these places, and the West India 
islands where they made their first settlements, and 
except for Florida about to be mentioned, the Territory 
territory occupied by the Spaniards in the New ^"jf 1 ^. 1 ^ 
World was exactly the territory occupied by iards - 
the half-civilized Indians. The Spaniards simply took 
possession of those Indian countries and turned over a 
large part of their revenues to the government at Madrid. 
The Spanish colonies were, therefore, very different from 
tLe English colonies, which introduced a purely European 
society into the New World. 

22. The Spaniards on the North Atlantic Coast. 
In invading the region of the barbarous Indians in North 
America, the Spaniards did not achieve great success. 
The first of their ventures upon the soil of what is now 
the United States was made by Juan Ponce de Leon, a 



42 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. III. 

brave knight who had come out with Columbus in his 
The second voyage. There was a story of a won- 

« Fountain derful fountain somewhere in eastern Asia, by 
drinking of which one might perpetually renew 
one's youth. From something said by the Indians in 
Cuba, the Spaniards got the idea that this fountain was 
situated a little to the north of that island, and Juan 
Ponce went in search of it. On Easter Sunday, 1513, 1 
he came within sight of a coast which he called " Land 
of Easter," or in Spanish, "Terra de Pascua Florida;" 
and it has ever since been known as Florida. In 1521, 
he tried to make a settlement on. this coast, but was 
defeated and mortally wounded by the Indians. 

After the return of Magellan's expedition, in 1522, a 
good many people's eyes began to open to the fact that 
these strange shores were not a part of Asia, but a bar- 
rier in the way to Asia, and some mariners began trying 
to find some new channel through this barrier. 

The strait of Magellan was so far to the south that 
people desired some shorter route, and it was hoped 
The search tnat some strait or channel might be found to 
for a the north of Florida. So little was yet known 

ft North- 

west Pas- of what we call North America that many people 
expected to find only groups of islands where 
we know that there is the coast of a very broad continent. 
Thus began the famous search for a " Northwest Pas- 
sage " to Asia. The Northwest Passage was finally 
discovered in 1854, by Sir Robert McClure, who passed 
from Bering Strait through the islands of the Arctic 
Ocean to Davis Strait, and so out into the Atlantic. 
The search was begun 330 years earlier by Vasquez 
d'Ayllon, who came up from Hayti in 1524, and tried 
the James River and Chesapeake Bay in the hope of find- 

1 This date is often given incorrectly as 1512. 



§§22,23. THE SPANIARDS. 43 

ing a passage there. Disappointed in this, he came two 
years later, with six hundred people, and began to build 
a town on the James River, very near where the Eng- 
lish afterward founded Jamestown. Ayllon's town was 
called San Miguel. He employed negro slaves in build- 
ing it ; and this seems to have been the first instance of 
negro slave labor within the territory since covered by 
the United States. Starvation, disease, and Indian toma- 
hawks soon destroyed Ayllon and his little colony. 

While these things were going on, in 1525, Spanish 
ships, commanded by Estevan Gomez, followed our 
coasts from Labrador 'to Florida, taking notice 
of Cape Cod, Narragansett Bay, and the mouths 
of the Connecticut, Hudson, and Delaware rivers. As 
he found neither gold nor a northwest passage, his ex- 
pedition was considered a failure. 

23. Spanish Adventures to the Westward. Voy- 
agers upon the western Florida coast had ascended Mo- 
bile Bay and found the Indians wearing gold ornaments. 
It was accordingly thought that there might be another 
Mexico in that direction, and, in 1528, Panfilo de Narvaez 
started with four ships and four hundred men to explore 
these coasts. The expedition got scattered ; Narvaez and 
many of his men were drowned at the mouth of the Mis- 
sissippi River ; others got ashore and were captured by 
the Indians. Four of these captives — the treas- Adven- 
urer, Cabeza de Vaca, with two Spanish sailors c'abezfde 
and one negro — had wonderful adventures. Vaca - 
These Indians had never seen white men or black men, 
and they regarded their captives as supernatural beings 
or great wizards ; so they did not kill them, but carried 
them about in their wanderings. In the course of eight 
years Vaca and his comrades traveled over 2,000 miles, 
keeping westward until they reached the Gulf of Cali- 



44 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. III. 



fornia, where they found Spanish friends from Mexico. 
In the course of their wanderings they heard stories 
about Zufii and other pueblos far to the northward. In 
1539, the Spanish viceroy of Mexico sent a monk named 




Coronado. 



Marcos de Nizza to inquire into the truth of these 
stories, and this monk reached a hill from which he could 
see the Zufii pueblos. The next year Francisco 
de Coronado started northward with 300 Span- 
iards and 800 Mexican Indians ; he discovered the Grand 
Canon of the Colorado River, visited the Moqui and Zufii 

1 Wolpi is one of the fortified pueblos of the Moquis of northeastern 
Arizona. Situated on the summit of a steep hill, it is very difficult for an 
enemy to approach it. The illustration shows the way in which cattle 
and sheep are penned. The gardens are down in the irrigated fields 
below, and all the water has to be carried up the hill in jars ; this is 
regularly done by the women. The buildings are entered at the top by 
ladders, and the interior of a room is represented in the illustration 
on page 9. 



§§ 23> 2 4- 



THE SPANIARDS. 



45 



pueblos, and went as far, perhaps, as some point on the 
south fork of the Platte River, or possibly somewhat fur- 
ther to the east. He returned to Mexico in 1542, dis- 
gusted at not having found gold or wealthy kingdoms. 

24. Further Attempts at Conquest and Colonization. 
While Coronado was making these long marches, another 
Spanish knight was engaged in the same kind of search 
in the eastern part of the continent. Fernando Fernando 
de Soto, governor of Cuba, started in 1539, with deSoto. 
nine ships, carrying 570 men and 223 horses. From 
Florida he advanced very slowly northward and west- 
ward, encountering desperate opposition from the Creek 
Indians. In the 



! ii 


Tf*\ 






m 


i'-r- 


• .-Ji?f9'*-r«fc,r 


il^Fffl 


,.<*?.' p.£BBm 


iH 


• 



Q 



spring of 1542, 
the party crossed 
the Mississippi 
River, and went 
up the western 
bank as far per- 
haps as New Mad- 
rid. They found 
dreadful hard- 
ships, but no rich 
treasures. Soto 
died of fever and 
was buried in the 
great river ; the 
remnant of his 
men built boats 
in which they 

sailed down stream and out to sea, and after much suffer- 
ing reached the Mexican coasts. 

In 1546-49, the Spaniards made an attempt to found a 
colony in Florida, but all the settlers were massacred by 



Ssi 1 






L 



AJiwi 



SPANISH GATEWAY AT ST. AUGUSTINE. 



46 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. Ill 

the Indians. Further unsuccessful attempts were made 
from time to time until 1565, when St. Augus- 
of st. tine, the oldest city in the United States, was 

founded by Menendez. On this occasion the 
Spaniards came into conflict with the French. For the 
first time we find Spaniards meeting with European 
rivals in the New World, and we have next to see how 
this came about. 

topics and questions. 

21. The Spanish Conquest of the Half-Civilized Indians. 

1. The aims and motives of the Spanish discoverers. 

2. The extent and limits of their conquests. 

3. The Spaniards' chief interest in their American possessions. 

4. How they guarded the Potosi mines, and what came of it. 

5. How the Spanish colonies differed from the English (a) in 

respect to the kind of Indians dealt with, and (b) in 
respect to the general mode of handling them. 

22. The Spaniards on the North Atlantic Coast. 

1. The "Fountain of Youth." 

2. Ponce de Leon and his search for the fountain. 

3. How Florida came to be so named. 

4. New views about Florida and the regions to the north. 

5. Why mariners were led to search for the " Northwest Pas- 

sage." 

6. The beginning of the search. 

7. The site, building, and fate of San Miguel. 

8. The final discovery of the passage. 

23. Spanish Adventures to the Westward. 

1. The search for a new Mexico, and how it ended. 

2. How the Indians regarded Vaca and his fellow captives. 

3. The wanderings of Vaca. 

24. Further Attempts at Conquest and Colonization. 

1. The expedition of Fernando de Soto. 

2. Its disasters and ruin. 

3. The settlement of St. Augustine. 

4. The first European rivals of the Spaniards. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

i. Why do intelligent people nowadays refuse to believe in a 



Ch. III. THE SPANIARDS. 47 

fountain of youth ? Mention some other belief as fascinat- 
ing and absurd as this in a fountain of youth. Show how 
a strong belief, whether well grounded or not, may affect the 
course of history. 

2. With what half-civilized Indians did the Spaniard contend? 

With what barbarous Indians? Why did the Spaniards 
succeed with the former and fail with the latter ? What is 
the difference between half-civilized people and barbarous 
people ? 

3. Trace a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific by way of 

the Arctic Ocean, telling through what bodies of water, 
straits, etc., the way lies. Is this passage of service to 
commerce ? Reasons for your answer. 

4. Was America discovered at once ? Is it all discovered now ? 

Is enough discovered to make a map of its entire general 
shape ? Does Greenland belong to America ? 

5. It is said on page 71 that negro slavery in the United States 

began at Jamestown in 1619. Reconcile this statement with 
what is said about Ayllon's slaves, page 43, and Hawkins's 
slaves, pages 59, 60. 

6. What were probably some of the reasons urged by good men 

in favor of slavery ? What is the great objection to slavery ? 
Does any enlightened nation to-day tolerate slavery ? Is 
slavery everywhere abolished ? 

7. Of what use is it to know when and by whom a country was 

discovered? Since one cannot know when and by whom 
all countries were discovered, what discoveries should one 
consider first of all ? What may one be pardoned for not 
knowing ? 

8. Granted that most of what one reads about Soto is destined 

to be forgotten, what things about him had one better try to 
save from such forgetfulness ? 

9. The teacher should try to cultivate in his pupils the historical 

imagination, — the power to utilize such material as they 
may have in creating pictures of the past. Let him, for 
example, ask them to describe the burial of Soto, the pic- 
ture to be of their own making. They may be readily led 
to see that the picture should show a river, a company of 
Spaniards in a boat or boats, a priest probably, some signs 
of a burial service, and a general look of sadness. If they 
cannot go further, the teacher may lead them to tell what 



4 8 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. Ill 



they would like to know to complete the picture, as, for in- 
stance, whether the burial was by day or by night, what kind 
of boats or vessels were used, how the Spaniards were 
dressed, what moment of the service was best fitted for the 
artist, whether in such a picture the expression of faces 
should be brought out, what the effect of midnight might be 
on its details, etc. Young people cannot be expected to do 
a high order of work in this direction, but the beginnings, at 
least, of a valuable training may be made here, and the foun- 
dations laid for making such inquiries as these : 

a. Are pictures of historical events or scenes strictly true of 

all the details of such events or scenes ? 

b. What sort of truth should these pictures present ? What 

things in the real may be changed or omitted in the 
picture ? 

c. Is a map true to all the details of the region it shows ? 

Would its value be increased by increasing the number of 
its facts ? Is its value ever increased by reducing its 
details ? 

d. Mention some things that are never attempted in pictures. 

e. Select illustrations in this book, and inquire how far they 

may be trusted, and how far not. 

f. What is the object of a picture in this book? 

g. Select events or scenes in this history that would make 

striking subjects for pictures. 
Work in this vein cannot be carried far without making it clear 
that no one can put into a picture what he has not already in 
mental possession, and that all attempts to see with the mind's 
eye the vanished past involve, first, adding to one's store ma- 
terial that belongs to that past, and, secondly, using one's re- 
sources, old and new, in bringing back that past by an effort 
of the imagination. 
io. Fill out from the text a table somewhat like the following: 



1 DATES. 


SPANISH EXPLORERS. 


REGIONS VISITED. 


SETTLEMENTS MADE. 











Ch. III. THE SPANIARDS. 49 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The Discovery of A merica, vol. ii. : 

1. The ancient city of Mexico, 262-274. 

2. The conquest of Mexico by Cortez, 274-290. 

3. Slaves in ancient times, 427-429. 

4. Negro slaves, 429-432. 

5. Indian slaves, 443-447. 

6. The strong and noble life of Las Casas : 

a. The man himself, 437-441. 

0. His Indian slaves set free, 450, 451. 

c. His connection with African slavery, 454-457. 

d. His preaching of the gospel of peace, 464-465. 

e. His triumph over Spanish slavery, 474-476. 

f. His deathless fame, 482. 

7. The search for the Northwest Passage, 489, 490. 

8. The Seven Cities of Cibola, 502-507. 

9. The final proof that America is separate from Asia, 544-552. 
10. Spain and the New World : 

a. Why her colonizing spirit was limited to 1492- 1570, 

554, 555- 

b. How fighting the Moors moulded the Spanish character, 

556, 557- 

c. How the Spaniards crushed out independence of thought 

and action, 561-565. 

d. The effect of this on the Spanish character, 566, 567. 

e. How England gave free play to the human mind, 567, 

568. 
/ The effect of this on the English character, 568. 

g. The stamp of Spain and of England on the New World 

to-day, 569. 



CHAPTER IV. 

FRENCH PIONEERS. 1504-1635. 

25. The Fisheries and the French. The first sailors 
to come from France to the New World were Breton 
and Norman fishermen. The abundance of codfish on 
the banks of Newfoundland had been noticed 
foundiand and reported by John Cabot in 1497, and fish- 
s enes. -^ vesse i s f rom various countries soon found 
their way thither. The oldest French name in America, 
that of Cape Breton, is probably as old as 1504; and 
ships from Normandy and Brittany have kept up their 
fishing in those waters from that day to this. Ships 
from Portugal and from Biscay came also, but at first not 
many from England, for the English were used to catch- 
ing their codfish in the waters about Iceland. Gradu- 
ally, however, the English came more and more to 
Newfoundland, and by the end of the sixteenth century 
the fisheries were practically monopolized by French and 
English. 

During that century the fisheries were almost the only 
link between France and the coast of North America. 
In 15 18, Baron de Lery tried to found a colony on Sable 
Island, but was glad to get away before starving to death. 
Francis I., who became king of France in 15 15, laughed 
at the kings of Spain and Portugal for presuming to 
monopolize between themselves all new discoveries east 
and west. Had Father Adam made them his sole heirs ? 
If so, they had better publish the will! In 1521, war 



§§ 25, 26. FRENCH PIONEERS. 5 1 

broke out between France and Spain, and French 
cruisers began hovering about the western parts of the 
Atlantic, to capture Spanish gold on its way from the 
New World. In 1523, one of these cruisers, a Floren- 
tine, named Verrazano, captured an immense quantity 
of treasure on its way from Mexico. The next verrazano. 
year Verrazano skirted the coast from Cape 1524, 
Fear, in North Carolina, as far probably as the Piscata- 
qua River in New Hampshire ; he seems to have entered 
the Hudson River and to have landed upon Rhode Island. 

The fortune of war went against King Francis, and 
nothing more was done for ten years. Then came 
Jacques Cartier, who sailed up the St. Lawrence carder, 
as far as an Iroquois village situated on an 1534 " 
eminence which he called Montreal. In 1540-43, an 
unsuccessful attempt was made by the Sieur de Rober- 
val, aided by Cartier, to establish a French colony in 
Canada. Then the French became so much occupied 
with their wars of religion as to give but little thought 
to America for the next half-century. 

26. The Huguenots in Florida. During this period, 
however, there was one memorable attempt at coloniza- 
tion which grew directly out of the wars of religion. 
The illustrious Protestant leader, Coligny, conceived the 
plan of founding a Huguenot state in America, The Hu- 
and, in 1562-65, such a settlement was begun ISa." 1 
under the lead of Jean Ribault ; but in the 1562-65. 
autumn of the latter year it was wiped out in blood by 
Pedro Menendez. That Spanish captain landed in Flor- 
ida and built the fortress which was the beginning of the 
town of St. Augustine. Then he attacked the French 
colony, overcame it by surprise combined with treachery, 
and butchered everybody, men, women, and children, 
some seven hundred in all ; a very few escaped to the 



52 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IV. 



woods, and after strange adventures made their way back 
to France. 

According to the Spanish government, which laid 
claim to the whole of North America as lying west of 
the Line of Demarcation, these Frenchmen were tres- 
passers or invaders, and deserved their fate. The govern- 
ment of France at that moment was too subservient to 
Spain to call her to account ; but a private gentleman> 
Theven- named Dominique de Gourgues, took it upon 
Gourgues. himself to avenge his slaughtered countrymen. 
1568. Having fitted out a secret expedition at his own 
expense, he sailed for Florida, surprised three Spanish 

forts, slew every 
man of their garri- 
sons, and returned 
in grim triumph 
to France. This 
was early in 1568. 
Menendez was at 
that time in Spain, 
but he returned two 
years later, and the 
Spaniards kept pos- 
session of Florida. 
27. The Settle- 
ment of Canada. 
It was not until the 
religious wars had 
been brought to an 
end by Henry IV., 
in 1598, that the 
French succeeded 

FRENCH DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS. 

in planting a colony 
in America. They began to be interested in the north- 




§27- 



FRENCH PIONEERS. 



53 



western fur trade as well as in the Newfoundland fish- 
eries ; and, in 1603, the Sieur de Monts obtained permis- 
sion to colonize a vast tract of land extending from New 
York harbor to Cape Breton, and known as Acadia, a 
name afterward restricted to the northeastern part of this 
region. A monopoly of the fur trade within these limits 
was granted by Henry IV. to a company of which Monts 
was the head. So far as Monts was concerned, the enter- 
prise was a failure ; but one of his companions, Poutrin- 
court, succeeded, in 1604, in making the first permanent 
French settlement in America at Port Royal 

J First settle- 

in Nova Scotia. Another of the party, Samuel mem of 

de Champlain, made a settlement at Quebec ana ** 
four years later, and became the founder of Canada. 
Champlain was one of 
the most remarkable 
Frenchmen of his time, 
— a beautiful character, 
devout and high-minded, 
brave and tender. He 
was an excellent natu- 
ralist, and has left some 
of the best descriptions 
we have of the Indians 
as they appeared when 
first seen by white men. 
Champlain explored our 
northeast coast very minutely, and gave to many places 
the names by which they are still known. 2 He was the 
first white man to sail on the beautiful lake which now 
bears his name, and he pushed his explorations as far into 

1 From the Hamel portrait engraved in Shea's Charlevoix, vol. ii. 

2 As, for example, Mount Desert, which has retained its traditional 
French pronunciation as far as to keep the accent on the final syllable. 




CHAMPLAIN. 1 



54 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV. 

the interior as to discover Lakes Ontario and Huron. He 
governed Canada until his death in 1635, by which time 
the new colony had come to be quite flourishing. In 
161 1, Jesuit missionaries came over and labored with 
remarkable zeal and success in converting the 
among the Indians. Missions were established as far in- 
land as the Huron country, and the good priests 
often distinguished themselves as brave and intelligent 
explorers. The fur trade began to assume large dimen- 
sions, and French rovers formed alliances with the In- 
dian tribes in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes. The 
French usually got on well with the Indians ; they knew 
how to treat them so as to secure their friendship ; they 
intermarried with them, and adopted some of their habits. 
28. The French and the Iroquois. Nevertheless, in 
one quarter the French offended the Indians, and raised 
up for themselves a formidable enemy who had much to 
do with their failure to establish their power on a perma- 
nent basis in America. We have seen that Cartier, in 
1535, found an Iroquois village on the site of Montreal. 
There was no such village when Champlain arrived ; 
the Algonquin tribes of the neighborhood had either de- 
stroyed these Iroquois or driven them back upon their 
brethren of the Mohawk valley. Between Algonquins 
and Iroquois there was unquenchable hatred. It was 
natural that Champlain should court the friendship of the 
Algonquin tribes on the St. Lawrence, for they were his 
Enmity be- nearest neighbors. He undertook to aid them 
tween the against their hereditary foes. In 1609, he ac- 
the iro- companied them in an expedition against the 
formidable Mohawks, the easternmost of the 
tribes composing the Iroquois Confederacy known as the 
Five Nations. A battle was fought near the site of 
Ticonderoga, and Champlain won an easy victory over 



§2& FRENCH PIONEERS. 55 

the astonished Mohawks, who had never before seen a 
white man or heard the sound of a musket. Battle of 
But this victory, as we shall see by and by, ^g° nde ' 
was a fatal one for the French. It made the 1609 - 
Iroquois their deadly enemies. From that time forth, 
the warriors of the Five Nations hated the French with 
unappeasable hatred, and were ready to make alliances 
with any white men who were hostile to the French. 
This should be remembered as one of the most impor- 
tant facts in early American history, and the date of 
this first Ticonderoga battle should not be forgotten. 
It will hereafter be shown how this hostility of the 
Iroquois kept the French away from the Hudson River 
and prevented them from getting control of New York. 

topics and questions. 

25. The Fisheries and the French. 

1. What brought French sailors to the New World? 

2. Why were there so few Englishmen at first on the New- 

foundland banks ? 

3. What did the King of France think of Spanish and Portu- 

guese claims to all new lands ? 

4. How did France harass Spain in America? 

5. Describe Verrazano's career. 

6. What unsuccessful attempts were made to found French 

colonies during the sixteenth century ? 

26. The Huguenots in FlorieJa. 

1. The settlement of Ribault. 

2. Its destruction by Menendez. 

3. The Spanish reason for its overthrow. 

4. The vengeance of Gourgues. 

5. The nation in final possession. 

27. The Settlement of Canada. 

1. What led the French to renew their efforts to plant colonies? 

2. Give an account of Acadia. 

3. What rights did Monts receive from Henry IV. ? 

4. What two settlements grew out of the enterprise of Monts? 

5. Describe Champlain as a man. 



56 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV. 

6. How does he figure in geography and history ? 

7. Tell about the work of the Jesuit missionaries. 

8. How did the French treat the Indians? 
28. The French and the Iroquois. 

1. What Indian friendship did Champlain court? Why? 

2. How did Champlain favor his Indian friends ? 

3. Tell the story of the battle of Ticonderoga under the follow- 

ing heads : 

a. The opposing parties. 

b. The date, and a reason for remembering it. 

c. One cause of Champlain's easy victory. 

d. Far-reaching consequences of the Mohawk defeat. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Where are the banks of Newfoundland ? What fish are caught 

there? Why should fish be so abundant there ? How exten- 
sive are the banks ? From what countries do fishermen go 
there ? Who own these banks ? Do fish in the ocean belong 
to any person or any country in particular? Do fish in har- 
bors, rivers, brooks, and inland waters belong to people in 
such a way as to make it wrong for other people to catch 
them? Have the banks of Newfoundland had anything to 
do with history? If so, tell in what way. Find on some 
map the places from which the fishermen mentioned in the 
text used to come to the banks. 

2. Where did the Spaniards get their gold in the New World ? 

Why is gold prized so highly ? What gives it its value ? If 
it were as abundant as gravel, would it retain its value? 
What would continue to be true of it in spite of such abun- 
dance ? What would cease to be true of it because of such 
abundance ? Would one be rich if he had plenty of gold, 
but could not exchange it for other things ? 

3. Where, when, why, and by whom was the Line of Demarcation 

established? What history hinges on this line (that is, tell 
something that has happened because such a line was. fixed)? 
(See pages 32, 33.) 

4. What is meant by a monopoly of the fur trade ? Mention some 

monopoly that exists to-day. Why do the owners of a mo- 
nopoly like it ? Why do others frequently dislike it ? If one 
invents something, is he entitled to exclusive control of it ? 
If others seek to appropriate it, what is there to hinder? 



Ch. IV. 



FRENCH PIONEERS. 



57 



How is the monopoly of an invention unlike the monopoly 
of a fur trade ? 

5. What animals furnished fur for the fur trade? What sort of 

trouble was likely to arise about a valuable fur trade in the 
wilderness of America ? What different peoples were deeply 
interested in this trade ? Has this trade been the means of 
affecting American history in any way? If so, tell how. 
What recent trouble has there been over an Alaskan fur 
trade ? 

6. Obtain No. 17 of the Old South Leaflets, entitled Verrazano's 

Voyage. It is a translation of Verrazano's own account of 
his voyage, and the earliest known description of the shores 
of the United States. His account is one of the original 
documents on which historians rely. It will help young 
people to get an inkling of what real investigation is, if they 
will try to answer from the leaflet such questions as these : 

a. What did Verrazano say the object of his expedition 

was? 

b. What facts did he observe about people along the coast ? 

c. Mention some differences between the northern Indians 

and the southern as he saw them. 

d. Tell some sound views about the earth that Verrazano 

held ; also some views of his that have since proved to 

be unsound. 
Let the teacher ask other questions to set his pupils " for- 
aging " in this interesting letter. 

7. Where did the Indians first face firearms ? What was the effect 

upon them ? How did these firearms differ from modern 
ones? Find occasions when the Indians in their fighting 
relied on spears, bows, arrows, and such weapons. 

8. Fill out from the text a table of French explorers in accordance 

with the following plan : 



DATES. 


FRENCH EXPLORERS. 


REGIONS VISITED. 


SETTLEMENTS MADE. 











58 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IV. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Parkman's Pioneers of France in the New World: 

1. America a region of wonder and mystery, 9, 10. 

2. Dreams of treasures in Florida, 12, 13. 

3. The adventures of Fernando de Soto, 13-17. 

4. The Indians of Florida in 1565, 36, 42, 50-58. 

5. The bold undertaking of Menendez, 99-104. 

6. The fate of Fort Caroline, 1 14-130. 

7. The massacre of the French settlers, 1 31-144. 

8. The vengeance of the French, 162-174. 

9. The fisheries of Newfoundland, 188-190. 

10. The Isle of Demons, 190-192. 

11. Cartier and the Indians of the St. Lawrence, 202-215. 

12. Incidents in the career of Samuel de Champlain : 

a. His curious journal, 238. 

b. Baffled by the St. Lawrence, 242. 

c. On the coast of New England, 253-256. 

d. The founding of Quebec, 329-331. 

e. A hard winter at Quebec, 333-336. 

f. On the war-path with Indians, 339-347. 

g. Fighting the Iroquois on Lake Champlain, 348-352. 
h. Fighting the Iroquois on the St. Lawrence, 354-360. 
i. His trip up the Ottawa, 368-382. 

/ Fighting the Iroquois in their homes, 339-406. 
k. The fall of Quebec, 434-440, 448-450. 
/. The summing up of his life, 452-454, 



CHAPTER V. 

THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 1584-1676. 

29. The Coming of the English. The French were 
not the only rivals who came to dispute the claims of 
Spain to the possession of North America. The English 
were rather slow in coming upon the scene, but when 
they came it was to stay. It has been mentioned that 
John Cabot and his son visited portions of the The 
North American coast in 1497-98. They sup- Cabots - 
posed . it to be an Asiatic coast, but as they found no 
gold and no evidences of civilization and wealth, their 
discovery was not regarded as important, and for many 
years the English made no attempts to follow it up. 
Afterward, however, when the English began to make 
settlements upon this coast, they claimed possession of 
it by virtue of Cabot's discovery. 

The attention of the English began to be turned 
toward America soon after 1 560, early in the reign of 
Queen Elizabeth. About that time the famous sailor, 
Sir John Hawkins, began kidnaping negroes sir John 
on the coast of Guinea and bringing them to Hawkins - 
the West Indies to sell them to the Spanish colonists for 
slaves. Very few people in those days could see any- 
thing wrong in slavery ; it seemed as proper to keep 
slaves as to keep cattle and horses. When Hawkins 
was made a knight, he took as part of his coat-of-arms 
the picture of a. captive negro bound with a cord. 
Hawkins was an honest and pious man, but he actually 



60 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

felt proud of his share in opening up the slave trade, as a 
profitable trade for England. In our time nobody but 
a ruffian would have anything to do with such a wicked 
and horrible business. Changes of this sort make us 
believe that the world is growing to be better than it 
used to be. But the improvement is very slow. The 
slave trade, of which Hawkins was one of the principal 
founders, continued to be carried on after the English 
had made settlements in North America, and slaves were 
brought here from Africa until the year 1808. 

30. The Decline of Spanish Power in America. 
About the time that Hawkins appeared upon the scene, 
Spanish activity in North America was drawing to a 
close. All the energy of Spain was becoming absorbed 
in European wars. Since 15 16, the Netherlands had 
been subject to the Spanish crown; in 1567, their revolt 
against Spain began. It led to a terrible war which 
lasted more than forty years, until the Dutch provinces 
won their independence. Questions of religion as well 
as of politics were involved in this war, and as the Dutch 
were Protestants, Queen Elizabeth sent an army to help 
them, and thus entered into the war against Spain. The 
grand crisis of the war was in 1588, when Philip II., 
king of Spain, sent against England a fleet so great 
The " in- and powerful that it was called the Invincible 
Armada." Armada. There were 132 ships carrying 
1588. more than 3,000 cannon. With the aid of this 
fleet, it was intended to convey across the Channel into 
England a Spanish army from the Netherlands. Many 
people believed that England would now be conquered 
and English liberty destroyed. But the English gath- 
ered together a fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham ; 
the vice-admiral was Sir Francis Drake, one of the 
greatest seamen that ever lived, and among the rear- 



§3°- 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



6\ 



admirals was Hawkins. The Spaniards had no com- 
manders equal to these for skill in handling ships. As 
the Invincible Armada entered the Channel, the English 
ships gathered to the west of it, cutting off its retreat 
and wearing out its strength in a long running fight. 
When the defeated Spaniards were driven through the 
Strait of Dover into the North Sea, their doom was 
sealed. Their only means of getting home was to sail 
away to the north and around the extremity of Scotland 
into the Atlantic Ocean, and in this long voyage they 
encountered storms that wrecked nearly all the ships. 
Never in the world has there been a more crushing over- 
throw than that of 
the Invincible Ar- 
mada. At the time 
when this great bat- 
tle was fought, two 
children had already 
been born in Eng- 
land who were 
destined to play an 
important part in 
carrying English 
civilization into the 
New World. John 
Smith, founder of 
Virginia, was a lad 
of nine years ; John 
Winthrop, founder of 
Massachusetts, was 
a babe of six months. 

Spain never recovered from the terrible blows that 
England dealt her in the course of this long war. The 

1 Facsimile of sketch in Les Mar ins du XV. et du XVI.Sihles. 




SPANISH GALLEON. 1 



62 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. V. 



principal sources from which Spain got the money for 
her war expenses were the mines of Mexico and Peru. 
Spanish Ships laden with gold and silver were fre- 
sWps U and quently starting from the American coasts for 
their fate. Spain, and, after 1570, English cruisers began 
to lie in wait for these ships, and to capture them with 
their treasure. For boldness and vigilance Queen Eliza- 
beth's sea-captains have never been surpassed. Some- 
times they would sail into Spanish harbors and sink the 
war-ships and burn the merchant vessels in full sight of 
the people ; this dangerous pastime was called " singe- 
ing the King of Spain's beard." After this sort of thing 
had gone on for some years, England began to feel her- 
self stronger and more at home upon the ocean than 

Spain. 

31. Sir Walter Ra- 
leigh. These great 
English cruisers were 
also great explorers. 
Drake and Cavendish 
carried Queen Eliza- 
beth's flag into the 
Pacific, visited the 
coast of California, 
and circumnavigated 
the earth. Frobisher, 
in quest of a north- 
western passage to 
India, entered the 
sir walter RALEiGH.i Arctic Ocean and ex- 

plored a part of it. 
But the thoughts of Sir Walter Raleigh were busy with 
grander schemes than these. Raleigh was one of the 

1 From Stalker's engraving published in London in 181 2. 




§ji. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 63 

most accomplished men of his time ; he was something 
of a philosopher, poet, historian, and statesman, as well 
as a brilliant captain. In 1569, when he was seventeen 
years old, he served in the religious wars in France under 
the great Coligny, who was probably the first person to 
conceive the idea of planting in America a state that 
should be entirely Protestant. We have seen how the 
colony in Florida, which Coligny tried to found, was de- 
stroyed by the Spaniards ; but the idea lived on in the 
mind of Raleigh, who aspired to " plant an English nation 
in America." In 1584, he obtained from the queen per- 
mission to make a settlement upon any territory . 
not already occupied by any Christian power ; attempt to 
and forthwith he devoted himself to the work colony* 
of starting such a settlement upon the coast of 1584 ~ 87 - 
North America. He sent several expeditions under able 
captains, though arduous duties at home prevented his 
going in person. A little colony was begun upon 
Roanoke Island, on the coast of what we now call North 
Carolina ; but in those days the general name in English 
for all that coast was Virginia, a name given to it by the 
virgin Queen Elizabeth in honor of herself. The name 
was also given in baptism to the first American child of 
English parents, Virginia Dare, born on Roanoke Island, 
August 18, 1587. For a moment Raleigh seemed likely 
to succeed with his little colony ; but the Invincible 
Armada absorbed too much attention. The colony was 
inadequately supported, and perished miserably. After 
some further attempts, in which he lost an amount of 
money that in our times would be equivalent to more than 
a million dollars, Raleigh gave up the enterprise of found- 
ing colonies, as too difficult for a single individual, and 
he assigned all his interests in Virginia to a joint-stock 
company of merchants and adventurers. 



64 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 




ELIZABETH'S AUTOGRAPH.! 

For a few years nothing more was accomplished, but 
Raleigh had done enough to turn the minds of English- 
men steadily toward colonizing North America ; so that 
when we mention the names of the great men who have 
founded the United States, it is right to begin with 
him. In 1 792, the state of North Carolina very properly 
commemorated him by giving his name to her capital 
city. 

32. How Raleigh Fared with King James I. When 
Queen Elizabeth died, in 1603, the King of Scots came 
King to b e a ^ so King of England, as James I. He 

James i. was a droll looking man, without much sense, 
but puffed up with the idea that he knew enough to teach 
all the learned men in both kingdoms. Well meaning in 
many respects, he was tyrannical in disposition, and 
thoroughly false and cowardly. He wished to keep on 
good terms with Spain. There was no man whom the 
Spanish government hated like Raleigh ; and presently 
King James arrested him on a false charge of treason, 
and kept him shut up for twelve years in the Tower of 
London, where he improved his time by writing a de- 
lightful " History of the World." In 1616, the king let 

1 From Winsor's America, Hi. 106. 



§§32,33- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 65 

Raleigh out in order to go and find gold in Guiana. This 
was encroaching upon Spanish ground, but James I. 
wanted money, and did not care how he got it. If any- 
thing were to go wrong, he could throw the blame on 
Raleigh. That gallant commander got into a fight with 
the Spaniards in Guiana, but returned to England with- 
out any gold. Then the king revived the old charge of 
treason against Raleigh, and had him beheaded. 

33. The London and Plymouth Companies. But 
Raleigh had lived long enough to see " an English nation 
planted in America." In 1606, some people, interested 
in his schemes, organized a great double-headed com- 
pany for making settlements on the Atlantic coast of the 
New World. One branch of it was composed chiefly of 
London merchants, and the other branch of persons in 
Plymouth and other southwestern parts, and the two 
were known as the London and Plymouth companies. In 
spite of his unwillingness to offend the Spaniards, King 
James was induced to grant a charter to these companies. 
There was much distress in England on account of peo- 
ple being turned out of employment. In the Nether- 
lands there had been a great increase in the weaving of 
woolen cloths, and England is one of the best of coun- 
tries for raising sheep. So English land owners had for 
some time been turning their farms into sheep pastures, 
in order to raise wool to sell to the Dutch. Sheep-rais- 
ing does not require nearly so many men to the square 
mile as the cultivation of wheat and barley ; and so, as 
the small farms were broken up, many men found them- 
selves out of work. In this emergency preachers began 
to declare in their pulpits that " Virginia was a door which 
God had opened for England." King James thought 
there might be gold mines there. The charter was 
granted as follows : — 



66 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch.V. 



To the London Company the king granted the coast 
of North America about from Cape Fear to the mouth 
Land of the Potomac ; to the Plymouth Company he 

fhese e com- granted the coast about from Long Island to 
panies. Nova Scotia. These grants were to go in 
straight strips, or zones, across the continent from the 
Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific ; 1 for so little was known 
about North American geography that a good many 

people believed the 
continent up here to 
be no wider than in 
Mexico. As for the 
middle strip, starting 
from the coast between 
the Potomac and the 
Hudson, it was open to 
the two companies, 
with the understand- 
ing that neither was to 
plant a colony within 
ioo miles of any settle- 
ment already begun by 
the other. This meant 
practically that it was 
likely to be controlled 
by whichever company 
should first come into 
the field with a flour- 
ishing colony. This 
made it worth while to 
act promptly. 

The charter provided, 
among other things, (i) 
that the settlers were 




GRANTS TO LONDON AND PLYMOUTH 
COMPANIES, 1606. 



1 This provision was added in the charter of 1609. 



6§ 33. 34- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 67 

to enjoy all the political and civil rights and privileges 
that belonged to free Englishmen at home ; (2) that 
each colony should be governed by a council appointed 
by the king ; (3) that the king should have, as his share, 
one fifth part of any precious metals that might be 
found. 

34. The Founding of Jamestown. Both companies 
made haste and sent out parties of settlers in 1607, the 
one to the James River, the other to the Kennebec. To 
the second of these enterprises we shall return by and 
by ; it ended in disastrous failure. The first barely 
escaped destruction, and laid at Jamestown the founda- 
tions of the first permanent English colony in America. 
There were three ships manned by 39 sailors, and be- 
sides these, there were 105 persons, of whom 52 were 
classed as " gentlemen," the rest as tradesmen and me- 
chanics. As for the farmers in search of work, we do 
not hear of them in this first expedition ; nor were there 
any women. The party were more intent upon finding 
gold than upon making new homes in the wilderness. 
Their food gave out, the Indians were unfriendly, and 
soon the settlers were attacked by fever. Within four 
months half of them had died ; but there was one man 
in the company whose energy saved it from utter ruin. 

That man was John Smith. He had been through 
many surprising adventures, if we are to take his own 
word for them. He had been captured by Bar- j ohn 
bary pirates, left for dead on a battlefield in Smith - 
Hungary, and sold into slavery in Turkey, before he had 
made his way home to England in time to come out to 
Virginia. Here his strange fortunes seemed to follow 
him. He was captured by the Indians, and they were on 
the point of knocking him on the head, when a young 
squaw named Pocahontas, daughter of the head war- 



68 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. V. 



chief, rushed up to him, threw her arms about him, and 
saved his life. Such, at least, is his own story. It is 

quite in accordance 
with Indian usage, 
and there is nothing 
at all improbable in 
it ; but it is doubt- 
ed by some people. 
There is no doubt, 
however, that Smith 
was a very energetic, 
quick - witted, and 
shifty sort of man. 
He explored the 
nooks and corners 
of the coast, sailed 
up the rivers, and 
coaxed or bullied the 
Indians into giving 
him food for the col- 
ony. Under his di- 
rection a few rude houses were put up, and a few bits of 
ground were scratched with a hoe and planted with corn. 
Arrival of In this way two years dragged along, until a 
nlstsMd new set °f 5 00 colonists arrived. These new- 
their fate, comers did not improve matters. They were a 
wretched set, for the most part the refuse of English 
jails, or ruffians picked up about the streets. They came 
in a small fleet commanded by Sir Thomas Gates and 
Sir George Somers ; but the ship which carried these 
two commanders had been " caught in the tail of a hur- 
ricane " and cast ashore upon one of the Bermuda islands. 
There were no provisions of food at Jamestown fit for 

1 From the contemporary engraving published in the early editions of 
Smith's writings. 




CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.* 



§§ 34. 35- THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 69 

supplying so many people. The old tale of mutiny, hun- 
ger, and disease was repeated. Smith was disabled by 
a severe accident, and returned to England soon after- 
ward. At length, Gates and Somers, having built a 
boat with their own hands and escaped from the Ber- 
mudas, arrived upon the scene, and found of all their 
men scarcely sixty left alive. They decided to abandon 
the enterprise and take these few survivors back to Eng- 
land. On the 8th of June, 1610, they had actually em- 
barked and sailed a few miles down the James River, 
when they were met by three well manned ships Lord 
bringing an abundance of supplies. This was Delaware. 
the squadron- of Lord Delaware, the newly appointed 
governor, who, when he landed at Jamestown, fell upon 
his knees upon the sandy beach, and, with uplifted hands, 
thanked God that he had come in time to save Virginia. 
Within a few months, however, ill health compelled 
Lord Delaware to go home to England, and it was left 
for his successor, Sir Thomas Dale, in the course ... 

Sir 

of the next five years, to set the colony firmly Thomas 
upon its feet. Two things happened during 
these five years (1611-16) to bring about such a desira- 
ble result. One was the abolition of communism, the 
other was the cultivation of tobacco. 

35. The Colony on its Feet. Hitherto, the system 
under which the colonists had lived was one of commun- 
ism. Land was owned in common, and what- Cornmun . 
ever food anybody raised, or whatever property ism - 
was got by trading with the red men, was thrown into a 
common pool, to be divided evenly among the settlers. 
The result was that the lazy ones would not work be- 
cause they preferred to throw the labor upon the 
others ; and the industrious ones were not very willing 
to work, since they could not keep the fruits of their 



70 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

labor. Thus the support of the colony had fallen en- 
tirely upon a few persons of vast energy, like Smith, 
and when these had reached the end of their ability and 
could do no more, the people starved. The sensible 
Dale put an end to this state of things. Henceforth, 
every man was to till his own tract of land, and bring 
two barrels and a half of corn to the public granary ; that 
was paying his tax for the support of the government ; 
whatever he should raise or earn beyond this was to be 
his own private property. No sooner was this change 
made than even the laz> people began to think it worth 
while to work. As for thieves and mutineers, Dale 
hanged them without mercy, until order and decorum 
reigned at Jamestown. 

Just as the people thus began to be set to work in the 
right way, they found that tobacco would buy whatever 
they needed. The smoking of tobacco by the 
natives of America had first been noticed and 
mentioned by Columbus in 1492. The habit was intro- 
duced into England in the reign of Elizabeth, and there 
is an old story that Sir Walter Raleigh's servant, seeing 
him puff clouds of smoke from a lighted cigar, dashed a 
mug of beer over him to put out the dangerous fire! 
King James did not approve of smoking, and he wrote 
a pamphlet entitled " Counterblast against Tobacco," in 
which he declared that " the vile smoke thereof doth 
most resemble the Stygian fumes of the pit that is bot- 
tomless." But the English people did not mind King 
James very well in this or in other matters. They per- 
sisted in learning to smoke until there came to be a 
great demand for tobacco. Now the soil of Virginia is 
the best in the world for growing tobacco. In 161 2, its 
systematic cultivation was begun by John Rolfe, and it 
became at once so profitable that by 161 6 the settlers 



§§35>3 6 - THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. /I 

were giving nearly all their time to it. With a good crop 
of this fragrant weed they could buy whatever else they 
wanted. Now respectable farmers began to come over 
to Virginia by hundreds, to make their fortunes. In 
1 619, more than 40,000 pounds of tobacco were shipped 
to England; by 1640, the average yearly export had 
reached 1,500,000 pounds ; by 1670, it had reached 
1 2,000,000 pounds. 

36. The Beginning of Slavery. In order to cultivate 
great plantations of tobacco manv laborers were needed, 
and cheap labor would do, because the worky Ne 
did not require much intelligence. So the set-v^^* 
tiers, instead of working with their own hands, began to 
buy slaves. In August 1619, says Rolfe, there came in 
"a Dutch manne-of-war that sold us twenty negars." 
This was the beginning of negro slavery in the United 
States. At first, however, there were more white than 
black slaves. When prisons in England became crowded 
with criminals, they were now and then relieved by send- 
ing shiploads of these wretches to Virginia to be sold 
into slavery for a term of years. This became a profita- 
ble business, and in English seaports there were gangs 
of kidnapers who used to seize upon gypsies, vagabonds, 
and orphan children, and pack them off to Virginia. 
These white slaves were called "indentured servants," 
because the terms and conditions of their servitude were 
prescribed by indentures like those that were used for 
apprentices in England. After a while these indentured 
servants were set free. Now and then some of the most 
capable and industrious would acquire small plantations 
for themselves ; some would lead lazy, thieving lives ; 
some would go out to the frontier and hunt and fish like 
the Indians. In course of time a good many of these 
poor white people moved westward with the frontier 



72 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

until their descendants became scattered far and wide. 
Very few of them came to this country after the year 
1700. By that time negroes were brought from Africa 
in numbers sufficient to do all the work on the plan- 
tations. 

37. Self-Government in Virginia. By the summer 
of 16 19, there were 4,000 white inhabitants in Virginia. 
They had a governor appointed by the London Com- 
pany to manage their affairs, and this arrangement would 
probably have satisfied Frenchmen, but it did not satisfy 
Englishmen. From time immemorial Englishmen had 

been in the habit of governing themselves by 
tative gov- means of representative bodies. Each township, 

or parish, used to elect some of its own men to 
sit as its representatives in a county court. In the thir- 
teenth century this system had been applied to the 
national government in England ; towns and counties 
chose their representatives to sit in a House of Com- 
mons ; and the principle was established that no power 
but the House of Commons could take away the people's 
money in taxes. Kings sometimes tried to break down 
this principle, but did not succeed. The England from 
which the first colonists came to Virginia was a free 
country, a land of liberty, and the colonists brought with 
them their freedom to America. In 16 19, the 4,000 
people of Virginia were living in eleven distinct settle- 
ments, or "boroughs." They expressed an earnest 
desire for a representative government, and it was 
willingly accorded to them by the London Company. 
Each borough elected two representatives, or "bur- 
gesses," to sit in the first representative assembly ever 
held in America. It met in the choir of the little church 
at Jamestown on Friday, July 30, 1619. It was there- 
after known as the House of Burgesses, and it was in 



§37- 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



73 



fact a little House of Commons for Virginia, holding in 
its hand the power of taxation. Thus was The House 
English self-government transplanted to Vir- °e S ^ e u s r " 
ginia. One of the burgesses in this first as- 1619 - 
sembly was named Jefferson, and 157 years later one of 
his descendants wrote our Declaration of Independence. 
King James did not relish these proceedings, and he 
had other reasons for disliking the London Company, 
under whose management such things were allowed to 
go on. That company had grown to be a powerful 




1WN. 1 



corporation with more than a thousand stockholders, 
including several members of the peerage and some of 
the richest merchants in England. It was becoming a 
power in politics on the side opposed to the king, and he 
made up his mind to overthrow it. So he accused the 
company of mismanagement and brought suit against it. 

1 After a sketch made in 1857. From Winsor's America, iii. 130. 



74 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

in the courts. Timid and time-serving judges decided 
Overthrow ^e case * n ^e king's favor, and, in 1624, the 
oftheLon- company's charter was annulled. Then James 

don Com- , . . . , 

pany. set to work with his own hands to write out a 

code of laws for Virginia ; but while he was 
about it he died, in March, 1625, and his son, Charles I., 
succeeded to the throne. 

38. King Charles I. and the Virginians. As for 
King Charles, he was no more inclined than his father 
to look with favor upon free government in Virginia. 
But he had made up his mind to govern England with- 
out parliaments, and was thus obliged to try to raise 
money in strange and illegal ways, and this got him into 
such serious trouble at home that it left him very little 
energy or leisure for interfering with things in America. 
The House of Burgesses continued to hold the purse and 
to control the management of public affairs in Virginia. 
In 1629, King Charles sent over a governor, Sir 
Harvey. John Harvey, whose conduct soon became very 
oppressive. He stole money out of the treasury, 
and tried to sell lands that belonged to individual owners. 
After six years, the people deposed this dishonest gov- 
ernor ; and although the king was very angry, and at first 
tried to reinstate Harvey, yet at length he thought it 
prudent to yield, and the people carried their point. 

In 1640, King Charles found it impossible to get on 
any longer without a parliament, and he summoned one 
which he was never afterward able to get rid of. Though 
many strange things happened to this parliament, it did 
The Long not finally come to an end until twenty years 
£*„{*" had elapsed, and it has ever since been known 
1640-60. as the Long Parliament. By 1643, civil war had 
broken out between Charles I. and the Long Parliament 
A king who wages war against the representatives of the 



§§ 3 8 > 39- 



THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 



75 




OLIVER CROMWELL. 1 



people may be accused of committing high treason, and 
to this end it came with Charles. He was beheaded in 
1649, an d monarchy was for a 
few years abolished in England. 
Government was in the hands 
of Oliver Cromwell till his death, 
in 1658 ; and then, after a brief 
interval, monarchy was restored, 
in 1660, in the person of the 
late king's son, Charles II., who 
turned out to be a man of worth- 
less character, but never became 
dangerous to English liberty like 
his father. 

39. Berkeley and the Cavaliers. In 1642, just before 
the civil war began, Sir William Berkeley came over to 
be governor of Virginia, and for the next five-and-thirty 
years was the most conspicuous figure in the 
history of the colony. Berkeley was an aristo- Ham Berke- 
crat, every inch of him, a man of velvet and e> ' 
gold lace, a brave soldier, an author whose plays were 
performed on the London stage, a devoted husband, a 
chivalrous friend, and, withal, a stalwart upholder of king- 
ship, and (as we shall see) a stern and merciless judge. 
He did not be- n _ n^-, 

lieve in popular X9/'9P 3 fl.ft \ 

government. 60 VMUTO J^'WJUl{)£S 
When he heard <y 



BERKELEY'S AUTOGRAPH. - 



some one allude 
to the. free schools in New England, he said he thanked 
God there were no such things in Virginia, nor any 
printing press, because too much education was apt to 
breed a seditious spirit. 

1 From a painting by Sir Peter Lely. 

2 From Winsor's America, iii. 147. 



76 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

After the death of Charles I., a good many of his 
friends, belonging to what was known as the Cavalier 
party, came over and settled in Virginia, because they 
did not like the way in which things were going on in 
England. Among these Cavaliers were the ancestors of 
George Washington and other famous Virginians who 
were engaged in the American Revolution. From 1650 
to 1670, these men came in such numbers as to give a 
Cavaliers distinct Cavalier tone to Virginian society. In 
m Virginia. England they had been country squires, and 
they kept up a kind of life somewhat similar in Virginia. 
They lived apart on their great estates, which were, for 
the most part, accessible by the rivers with which that 
country is so deeply penetrated. It was a common thing 
for a planter to have his own wharf where he shipped his 
cargo of tobacco in exchange for European merchandise. 
Accordingly, there were few manufactures in the colony, 
few merchants, and no large towns. Life was entirely 
rural. 

40. Berkeley's Tyranny as Governor. Cromwell had 
allowed the House of Burgesses to elect governors of 
Virginia, and accordingly, in 1652, a new governor had 
been elected in place of Berkeley ; but when Charles II. 
came to the throne, the House tried to show its loyalty 
by electing Berkeley again, and the king confirmed him. 
Berkeley's rule was oppressive. As the House chosen 
in 1 66 1 was about what he liked, he contrived to keep it 
in existence until 1675, simply by adjourning it from 
year to year ! For coolness one might suppose this sort 
, " of thing could hardly be surpassed ; but the 
grant. ' king went far beyond it. In 1673, he gave away 
the whole country to two of his favorites, Lords 
Arlington and Culpeper, as coolly as if it were an empty 
wilderness ! 



§40. THE ENGLIS.i IN VIRGINIA. 77 

But there were now more than 40,000 white people 
living in Virginia ; and even with a king to back them, 
it was not easy for two men to come and take possession 
of all that landed property. The king's silly grant never 
came to anything, but it made people very angry. Just 
at that moment, the Indies began burning down the 
inland settlements and murdering their inhabitants, and 
Berkeley had made himself so unpopular that he was 
afraid to call out the military force of the 

Bacon's re 

colony, lest it should turn against him. So the beiiion. 
people were obliged to defend themselves in 
spite of the governor. They raised a small volunteer 
force, and chose for their captain Nathaniel Bacon, a 
young man of good birth and education who had lately 
come over from England. When Bacon marched against 
the Indians the governor proclaimed him a rebel ; but 
this raised such a storm among the people that Berkeley 
was obliged to draw back and issue writs for a general 
election. Bacon was elected a member of the new 
House of Burgesses, and took a leading part in drawing 
up a memorial which was sent to the king, setting forth 
the grievous wrongs which his faithful subjects in Vir- 
ginia had suffered at the hands of their governor. Twice 
after this Bacon started out into the wilderness at the 
head of his troops in order to punish the Indians, but as 
soon as he got out of sight Berkeley began behaving so 
that it was necessary for him to come back and take 
possession of Jamestown. On the last of these occasions, 
it was decided to burn the town so that the tyrant might 
not hnd a shelter in it. There were not more than a 
score of houses, and some of the best of these were set 
afire by their owners ; which shows how bitterly Berkeley 
had come to be hated. Soon Bacon died of a fever, and 
Berkeley suppressed the rebellion with great cruelty, 



•/8 COLONIZATION OF 1 ORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

hanging twenty or more of the principal people with 
little more than the form of a trial. Charles II. thought 
best to disavow these cruelties, and recalled Berkeley to 
Berkeley's England. The old governor is said to have died 
fate. £ a broken heart on being reprimanded by the 

king ; it would have been much better if he had felt some 
sense of responsibility toward the people whom he had 
been sent out to govern. 

Very little immediate good was accomplished by Ba- 
con's rebellion, but the memory of it must have sharp- 
ened the determination of Virginians not to submit to 
tyranny. We must now turn aside from the history of 
this colony, to see what had been going on in other parts 
of the North American coast. 

topics and questions. 

29. The Coming of the English. 

1. What the Cabots supposed the coast to be. 

2. Why the English did not follow up their discoveries. 

3. The nature of their claim to the coast when they made it. 

4. Tell about Hawkins and the slave trade under these heads: 

a. Hawkins a-s a kidnaper. 

b. What people thought of slavery in his time. 

c. Hawkins's coat-of-arms. 

d. His personal character. 

<?. What people think of slavery to-day. 
f. The end of the slave trade. 

30. The Decline of Spanish Power in America. 

1. The war of the Netherlands. 

2. The interest of England in the conflict. 

3. The crisis of the struggle. . 

4. Tell about the Invincible Armada under these heads: 

a. The greatness of the fleet. 

b. The thing it aimed to do. 

c. The English mode of attack. 

d. The way back to Spain. 

e. The fate of the Armada. 

5. English cruisers and Spanish gold. 



Ch. V. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 79 

6. Singeing the King of Spain's beard. 

7. The effect of all this on Spain's power and England's feel- 

ing of strength. 

31. Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1. Some English explorers, and what they did. 

2. Raleigh as a man. 

3. Raleigh's grand idea, and where he got it. 

4. His first colony. 

5. The name Virginia. 

6. Raleigh's failure and losses. 

7. The chief thing accomplished by him. 

32. How Raleigh Fared with King James I. 

1. What kind of a man was the king? 

2. Why did he cast Raleigh into prison ? 

3. Why did he let him out? 

4. How did the king dispose of Raleigh at last? 

33. The London and Plymouth Companies. 

1. What was the object of these companies? 

2. What distress in England turned men's thoughts to America ? 

3. What land was granted to the London Company ? 

4. What land was granted to the Plymouth Company ? 

5. What plan was made for the middle strip ? 

6. How far were these strips supposed to reach? 

7. What three things did the charter of the companies pro. 

vide for? 

34. The Founding of Jamestown. 

1. What kind of men were the first settlers? 

2. What were they chiefly intent upon ? 

3. What misfortunes befell them ? 

4. What surprising adventures did John Smith have? 

5. What did he do for the colony? 

6. Tell about the new arrivals and their fate. 

7. How was the colony saved? 

35. The Colony on its Feet. 

1. The abolition of communism. 

a. How property was held at first. 

b. How the system affected the people. 

c. What Dale did to end it, and the result 

2. The cultivation of tobacco. 

a. The first smokers of tobacco. 

b. The smoking habit in England. 



80 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

c. Why the Virginians began to raise tobacco. 

d. The effect on the growth of the colony. 

36. The Beginning of Slavery. 

1. Why did the Virginians want slaves ? 

2. The first cargo of negro slaves. 

3. White slaves from England. 

4. What became of the white slaves when set free ? 

37. Self-Government in Virginia. 

1. Tell how Virginia was governed in 161 9. 

2. How had Englishmen always governed themselves ? 

3. How far had they got in self-government in the thirteenth 

century ? 

4. Describe the Virginian borough. 

5. Tell about the first representative body in America. 

6. How did King James show his dislike for Virginian self- 

government ? 

38. King Charles I. and the Virginians. 

1. How did King Charles view free government in Virginia? 

2. What kept him from interfering much with Virginia ? 

3. What experience did Virginia have with one of his gov- 

ernors ? 

4. What was the result of Charles's fight with Parliament ? 

39. Berkeley and the Cavaliers. 

1. Berkeley as a man. 

2. Berkeley's views of popular government and education. 

3. The coming of the Cavaliers. 

4. The sort of life they lived. 

5. The character they gave to the colony. 

40. Berkeley's Tyranny as Governor. 

1. The governor and the House of Burgesses. 

2. The king's silly grant. 

3. How Bacon became a rebel. 

4. Fighting the Indians and the governor. 

5. The suppression of the rebellion. 

6. Berkeley's fate. 

suggestive questions and directions. 
I. What is a coat-of-arms ? What is the use or object of a coat- 
of-arms? Who are entitled to have one? Describe the 
coat-of-arms of your State? Explain its meaning? Do pri- 
vate American citizens have coats-of-arms ? If so, why? 



Ch. V. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 8 1 

2. Is the slave trade carried on anywhere to-day ? If so, where ? 

What is the attitude of civilized governments towards such 
trade ? 

3. Why should the overthrow of the Invincible Armada be de- 

scribed in a history of the United States ? 

4. Did English cruisers seize Spanish treasure-ships at any time 

they pleased, or only in time of war ? During what years 
was England at war with Spain ? 

5. What was the early Portuguese route to the East Indies ? How 

did the Spaniards try to get there? What way did the 
English try to find ? What is the favorite route from Eu- 
rope to-day ? What new route may be established in the 
not distant future ? Give reasons why one route should be 
preferred to another. 

6. Mention some of the reasons that led English people to come 

to America in the early times. 

7. How far west did the grants to the London and Plymouth 

companies extend ? Who gave them these lands, and by 
what right ? Were English sovereigns in the habit of giv- 
ing lands outright, or did they exact something in return for 
them? Cite instances to show their practice. To whom 
were payments or other returns for such lands regarded as 
belonging, — to the sovereign personally or to the English 
people ? 

8. What was the first permanent colony within the limits of the 

present United States ? The second ? The third ? The 
fourth ? Is a first colony or settlement of any more real 
consequence than a second or a third ? If so, show why. 
Mention some first things of any sort that are highly re- 
garded. 

9. Tell the story of Jamestown from the beginning to its destruc- 

tion. 
10. Fill out the second column of a table like the following, get- 
ting the data from pages 69, 70 : 



VIRGINIA UNDER A SYSTEM OF 
COMMUNISM. 


UNDER DALE'S PLAN. 


Land owned in common. 

Gains put into a common pool. 

Living; charges borne by the community. 

Idleness encouraged. 

Misery increased. 


Land? 

Gains? 

Living charges ? 

Idleness? 

Misery? 



82 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

Under what plan do people live nowadays ? Under what 
plan did the Indians live, at least in part ? Which is the 
better plan ? Does either plan abolish misery ? 

11. Is it a good thing or bad that people have to work for a living ? 

If there is work enough for people to do, and they will not 
do it, and consequently suffer, ought they to be pitied and 
helped ? Is there work enough for all people ? If there is 
work enough, how happens it that people are thrown out of 
work from time to time ? What people ought to be relieved 
from the necessity of work? How do you like Dale's views 
about work ? As a rule, were American colonists good 
workers? What exceptions have you noted ? Does anew 
country call for more and harder work than an old one? 
Why? 

12. What is an apprentice? What are indentures? (See Web- 

ster's International, or any standard dictionary.) Let two 
pupils illustrate indentures by signing some simple agree- 
ment in duplicate and then separating the parts after the 
original fashion so that each pupil may retain one. Why is 
the name " indentures " still used when the original reason 
for the name has ceased to exist ? Think of other names in 
use, though the reasons for giving them no longer apply, as, 
for example, " coat-of-arms." 

13. Mention some things for which white people are indebted to 

the American Indians ; also some things for which these In- 
dians are indebted to white people. 

14. Compare the earlier settlers of Virginia with those that came 

over from 1650 to 1670. From what class did Jefferson de- 
scend ? Washington ? What is meant by the saying that 
"blood tells"? Does it tell in a sense that forbids one's 
rising from humble birth to a high place ? Mention some 
American lives to support your view. 

15. What was there so particularly cool in King Charles II. 's gift 

to Arlington and Culpeper ? Was this gift any cooler than 
that of King James to the first Virginian colonists ? What 
distinction, if any, exists between the two cases? 

16. Was Berkeley right in calling Bacon a rebel ? What consti- 

tutes a rebel ? Who was nearer the right in Bacon's rebel- 
lion, Berkeley or Bacon ? What was Berkeley's idea of the 
best government ? What was Virginia's idea of the best 
government ? Which idea fares the better under a system 



Ch. V. THE ENGLISH IN VIRGINIA. 83 

of free schools ? Who are the more likely to protest against 
bad government, the educated or the ignorant ? With which 
class can tyrants more easily deal? 
17. Let each pupil make out a list of names prominent in early 
Virginian history, with one or two conspicuous facts about 
each, following the form here given : 



NAMES. 


DATES. 


ONE OR TWO CONSPICUOUS FACTS. 









TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from John Esten Cooke's Virginia, A History of the 
People. Published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, in the 
series of "American Commonwealths," edited by Horace E. 
Scudder. 

The selections recommended here as well as elsewhere are pur- 
posely limited to a few matters that are lightly touched in the text. 
They are designed to show the richness, dramatic interest, and 
color that belong to events whose treatment in a school history is 
reduced to the baldest outlines, and to awaken a desire to read 
beyond the modest bounds suggested. 

1. The rise and fall of Jamestown, 16-22, 274-283. 

2. The ancient Virginians, 27-33. 

3. The story of Pocahontas : 

a. How she saved Captain Smith, 35, 36. 

b. Her personal appearance, 36. 

c. How she befriended the colonists, 37, 38. 

d. Her marriage, 95-97. 

e. Her life in England, 100-103. 

4. Incidents in the life of Captain John Smith : 

a. The terrible summer of 1607, 22-26. 

b. His voyage toward the South Sea, 33, 34. 

c. Not dazzled by fool's gold, 41, 42. 

d. His voyage to the Chesapeake, 43, 44. 

e. Another struggle for food, 49-55. 

f. Overthrown at last, 63-67. 

g. The kind of man he was, 68-76. 



84 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. V. 

5. The wreck of the Sea Venture (the ship of Gates and Somers 

mentioned on page 68, whose wreck is believed to have sug- 
gested to Shakespeare his "Tempest"), 57-61. 

6. The maids and the first slaves, 1 19-124. 

7. The great rebellion of 1676 : 

a. The causes, 231-235. 

b. The central figure, 238-240. 

c. The first act in the drama, 241-243. 

d. The arrest of Bacon, 244-246. 

e. The forgiveness of Bacon, 247-249. 
/ The flight of Bacon, 257, 258. 

g. Bacon demands his commission, 259-262. 

h. Was Bacon a traitor ? 264-274. 

i. The white aprons at Jamestown, 274-283. 

j. The death of Bacon, 283-292. 

k. Berkeley's cruel vengeance, 292-297. 



' 



CHAPTER VI. 

NEW ENGLAND. 1602-1692. 

41. Unsuccessful Attempts at Settlement. It will 
be remembered that, in 1606, a great double-headed com- 
pany was incorporated in England for the purpose of 
making settlements in North America. We have seen 
how one branch of it, the London Company (sometimes 
also called the Virginia Company), succeeded in found- 
ing the colony of Virginia. The region assigned to the 
other branch, known as the Plymouth Company, as a 
field for its enterprise, was the portion of the coast 
lying between Long Island and Nova Scotia, or from 
about 41 ° to 45 north latitude. This region was for 
some time called North Virginia, and an attempt at 
founding a colony in it had already been made, North 
in 1602, by Bartholomew Gosnold, who named Virginia 

' J and the 

Cape Cod and Martha's Vineyard, and built a Plymouth 
house on the island of Cuttyhunk, but was 
driven back to England by want of food. Almost every 
year after 1602 one English captain or another visited 
some part of this North Virginia coast. We have seen 
that, in 1607, when the London Company sent its set- 
tlers to Jamestown., the Plymouth Comparty also sent 
out an expedition. The persons chiefly interested in it 
were Sir John Popham, chief justice of England, and 
Sir Ferdinando Gorges, commander of the garrison at 
Plymouth. The colony which they tried to found is 
usually spoken of as the Popham colony. The settlers 



86 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

built some huts near the mouth of the Kennebec River, 
and spent the winter of 1607-8 there, half starved and 
half frozen. Then they went home and said there was 
no use in Englishmen trying to live in such a cold 
country. 

It will be remembered that Captain John Smith left 
the Jamestown colony in 1609. Five years afterward 
he came with two of the Plymouth Company's ships 
to North Virginia, explored the entire coast between 
Cape Cod and the mouth of the Penobscot, and made a 
map of it. He called the country New England, by 
North which name it has ever since been known. 

Virginia On thi s ma p h e p U t the name Charles River, 

becomes x A 

NewEng- in honor of "Baby Charles," afterward King 
Charles I. Curiously enough, too, he put the 
name Plymouth just where the town was afterward 
founded ; and of his other names, Cape Ann still re- 
mains. Other captains visited the coast after Smith, 
but it was not till late in the year 1620 that settlers 
came to stay. We have next to see what brought these 
settlers. 

42. Puritans and Separatists. The Protestant ref- 
ormation, set on foot in England in the reign of 
Henry VIII., was finally secured, in 1588, by the defeat 
of the Spanish Armada. In some respects it was a 
very incomplete reformation ; it did not even try to se- 
cure freedom of thought or freedom of worship. At 
the present day, in the most civilized countries, a man 
may hold any opinions that may seem right to him with 
regard to matters of religion ; he may proclaim his 
opinions by voice or in print ; he may go to any church 
he likes or to no church at all ; and he may or may not 
pay something toward the support of a minister, just as 
he pleases. In the days of Queen Elizabeth there was 



§ 4 2. NEW ENGLAND. 87 

no country in the world where such liberty was allowed. 
No such thing had ever been heard of since the world 
began, and people would have thought it a sure and quick 
way of bringing the world to an evil end. By the ref- 
ormation in England, the sovereign was made Thg Refor _ 
the head of the church in that country instead mation in 
of the pope, and there were some changes in 
doctrines and in ceremonials ; but everybody was re- 
quired to conform to the church as thus modified, and 
everybody was taxed to support it. Those who refused 
to conform were persecuted. 

Among the Protestant reformers there were a good 
many who were not at all satisfied with the doctrines 
and ritual of the English church as arranged in Queen 
Elizabeth's time. They wished to make further changes, 
simplifying the government of the church and dropping 
some of the ceremonies. This they considered purify- 
ing the church, and thus they came to be called The Puri- 
Puritans. Most of the Puritans had no inten- tans< 
tion of leaving the Church of England ; they wished to 
stay in it, and change it according to their own notions. 
But, as early as 1567, a small number of ministers, 
despairing of accomplishing what they wanted, made 
up their minds to separate from the church and to hold 
religious services in private houses. In 1580, a clergy- 
man named Robert Brown went about advocating this 
policy of separation, and those who adopted it were 
known as Separatists or Brownists. They did The Sepa- 
not believe in having bishops to rule over ratlsts - 
them. Some of them denied that the queen was the 
head of the church, and this was very dangerous talk ; 
it was liable to be called treason. The Separatists were 
accused of sedition, many were thrown into jail, some 
were hanged, and Brown fled from the kingdom. This 



88 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



The Pil- 
grims in 
Holland. 



sort of thing went on from time to time for the next 
thirty years. 

43. The Pilgrims in New England. At Scrooby, a 
hamlet in Nottinghamshire near the edge of Lincoln, 
there was a congregation of Separatists who listened to 
the eloquent preaching of John Robinson. In 1608, in 
order to escape persecution, they fled in a body to 
Holland, where there was much more religious 
liberty than in England or any other country 
in the world. They settled at Leyden, and 
were joined by other refugees from England until there 

were more than a 
thousand of them. 
They were well treated 
in Holland, but they 
knew that if they 
stayed in that coun- 
try their children and 
grandchildren would 
gradually lose their 
English speech and 
nationality and be- 




HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS. 



come Dutchmen. Ac- 
cordingly, some of 
them decided that it would be better to go, like "pil- 
grims," to America, and found a little state there for 
themselves. They made up their minds to try the 
coast of New Jersey, and got permission from the 
London Company to settle there. Some English mer- 
chants furnished them with money on pretty hard terms, 
because it was a risky enterprise. King James refused 
to grant them a charter, but made no objection to their 
going. So in July, 1620, a little band of Pilgrims sailed 
in the ship Speedwell from Delftshaven in Holland to 



§ 43- NEW ENGLAND. 89 

Southampton in England, where the Mayflower was 
waiting for them with friends. Both ships started to 
cross the ocean, but the Speedwell leaked so badly that 
they were twice obliged to put back. At length, on the 
1 6th of September, the Mayflower started alone from 
Plymouth in Devonshire, with just one hun- 
dred passengers, men, women, and children. theMay- 
The weather was bad, and they did not come to 
anchor on the American coast till the 21st of November. 
They had gone so far out of their way that instead 
of New Jersey it was the northern shore of Cape Cod 
where they found themselves. But they concluded to 
stay there and get permission from the Plymouth Com- 
pany, which would be easy to do because that corpora- 
tion was anxious to have settlers. So the Pilgrims held 
a meeting in the cabin of the Mayflower, and drew up a 
compact in which they announced their intention of mak- 
ing such laws as should be needed for the general good 
of the colony, and all agreed to be bound by Foundin<r 
such laws and to obey them. They chose John ° f th e 
Carver to be their governor. After spending colony. 
some time in exploring the coast, they landed 
at length, on the 21st of December, on the spot marked 
on Smith's map as Plymouth. There they put up a 
large rude cabin to shelter them from the winter's cold, 
but their sufferings were intense. More than half their 
number, including Governor Carver, died that winter, 
but instead of going home in the spring, the survivors 
set about building houses for themselves. William 
Bradford was chosen governor, and from that time until 
his death, in 1657, he was reelected every year except 
five ; and those five were years when he declined to 
serve. The other chief leaders of the Pilgrims were 
William Brewster and the stout soldier, Miles Standish. 



9 o 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VL 




PILGRIM RELICS. 1 

In the spring of 1621, they made a treaty with Massa- 
soit, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, who lived be- 
tween Cape Cod and Narragansett Bay, and 

Massasoit x ° J 

and Canon- this treaty was not broken till 1675. Over 
to the west of Narragansett Bay dwelt the 
powerful tribe of Narragansetts, and their chief, Canon- 
icus. He sent a messenger to Governor Bradford with 
a bundle of arrows tied up with a snake's skin. The 
messenger threw this bundle into the little Plymouth 
village, and ran away as fast as his legs could carry him. 
Bradford understood this to be a declaration of war, 
so he stuffed the snake's skin full of powder and bul- 
lets, and sent it back to Canonicus. The Indians then 
knew just enough about firearms to be superstitious 
about them ; they believed that white men wielded 
thunder and lightning, and, on the whole, Canonicus 



1 From Winsor's America, iii. 279. 1 belonged to Governor Carver; 
2 belonged to Dr. Samuel Fuller, the physician of the Pilgrims ; 3 belonged 
to Miles Standish. 



§§43,44- NEW ENGLAND. 91 

concluded that he had better keep quiet and leave the 
Plymouth people alone. 

By dint of hard work, the Pilgrims paid up the mer- 
chants who had advanced money for their enterprise. 
At first their colony grew very slowly. In 1630, it con- 
tained only three hundred persons ; but after that time 
they began to profit by the great emigration Growth of 
set on foot by the Company of Massachusetts the colony - 
Bay, and their numbers increased much faster. In 1640, 
the population of the Plymouth colony had reached 
nearly 3,000; by 1670, it had reached 8,000, distributed 
among twenty towns. 

44. The Puritans in New England. When Charles 
I. came to the throne, in 1625, the Puritan party in 
England was very powerful, and comprised many men 
of wealth, culture, and high social position. King 
Charles's reign began very badly ; as we have already 
observed, he was determined to get along without par- 
liaments, if possible, and to rule just as he pleased. In 
March, 1629, he turned his parliament out of doors, and 
did not summon another one until 1640. Meanwhile, 
some small bodies of Puritans, encouraged by the 
example of the Pilgrims, had begun to make settle- 
ments upon the shores of Massachusetts Bay. In 1628, 
John Endicott, of Dorchester, took command of a place 
which the Indians called Naumkeag ; he called the little 
colony which was beginning to be planted there by the 
Bible name of Salem, or " Peace." A number of lead- 
ing Puritans in England bought from the Plymouth 
Company a large tract of land including all the coun- 
try between the Charles and Merrimack rivers, The Com- 
and stretching inland indefinitely. Then they Massachu- 
got a charter from Charles I. incorporating setts Ba y- 
them as the Company of Massachusetts Bay. The 



9 2 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



affairs of this company were to be managed by a 
governor, deputy governor, and council of eighteen 
assistants, to be elected annually by the members of 
the company. They could make any laws they liked 
for their settlers, only these laws must not conflict 
with the laws of England. The place where the com- 
pany was to hold its meetings was not mentioned in 
the charter. Accordingly, in 1629, having become 




JOHN WINTHROP. 1 

thoroughly disgusted and somewhat alarmed at the 
king's conduct, the company decided to take its charter 
over to New England and found a self-governing com- 
munity there. No attempt was made to interfere with 
them, and it may be supposed that the king was not 
1 From a painting in the State House at Boston, attributed to Vandyke, 



§ 44. NEW ENGLAND. 93 

unwilling to have a large body of eminent Puritans 
leave England and get out of his way. 

In 1630, John Winthrop, of Groton, came over to 
Salem with eleven ships, bringing nearly 1,000 persons, 
with quite a stock of horses and cattle. John Winthrop, 
one of the wisest and noblest men of his time, Foundin 
was the real founder of the Massachusetts Bay °f the Mas- 
colony, and its first governor. During the year colony. 
1630, settlements were made at Dorchester, 
Roxbury, Charlestown, and Watertown. Governor Win- 
throp moved his headquarters first to Charlestown, and 
then to a small hilly peninsula whereon the highest 
hill was crowned with three summits. The Indians 
called the place Shawmut, but the English called it 
Trimountain, or Tremont, in allusion to its triple hill ; 
the name was soon changed to Boston, after the ven- 
erable town of that name in Lincolnshire, from which 
some of the leading settlers had come. 

The Puritan followers of Winthrop had not been 
Separatists, like the settlers of Plymouth, but soon after 
landing in America they separated themselves com- 
pletely from the Church of England. The Episcopal 
service was much simplified, and the greater . 
part of it discarded. There were no bishops service 
or dioceses in Massachusetts, but just simply 
parishes, each with its minister elected by the parish- 
ioners. It soon appeared that no kind of Episcopal 
church would be allowed in the colony, for two gen- 
tlemen at Salem, who favored the Episcopal form 
of worship, were put on board ship and sent back to 
England. 

When the first Massachusetts towns were settled, each 
had but one church ; there was one for Watertown, one 
for Dorchester, and so on. Thus, the inhabitants of the 



94 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

town and the congregation of the church were the same 
persons. When they met for church business, as to 
choose a minister or to admit new members, it was a 
parish meeting ; when they met for civil business, as to 
appropriate money for making a road or building a 
schoolhouse, it was a town meeting. In either case, it 
was a meeting of free people who governed themselves. 
In England the small patch of country which furnished 
members to a single church was usually called a parish, 
but it was still often called by the much older name of 
township. When settlers came over from England to 
Massachusetts, they usually came in congregations led 

by their ministers, and settled together in 
and town- parishes, or townships. In this way, the soil 

of Massachusetts gradually became covered 
with little self-governing republics, called townships, or 
towns, each about six or eight miles square, with a 
village street for its centre, surrounded by spreading 
farms. The church in the village was used not only 
for religious services, but also for transacting public 
business, and was always called the meeting-house. At 
a later time it was used only as a church, and another 
building, called the townhouse or townhall, was used 
for public business. The meeting-house and town- 
house usually stood beside a large open grazing-ground, 
or common, and in early times this village centre was 
apt to be placed upon high ground in order that the 
Th N approach of hostile parties of red men might 
England more easily be detected. On or near the 

common, there was, in many villages, a fort, 
or blockhouse, built of heavy timbers, where the people 
could take refuge in case of sudden attack. Some of 
the best dwellings in the village, though built of wood, 
were apt to be made so strong for defensive purposes 



§44- 



NEW ENGLAND. 



95 



that they have survived down to the present day, some- 
times in very good condition. 

By the year 1634, nearly 4,000 settlers had arrived, 
and about twenty villages, or parishes, with an average 
population of two hundred each, had been founded. 




MINOT HOUSE IN DORCHESTER, MASS. (1633-1640). 1 



The building of houses, fences, roads, and bridges was 
going on briskly. Lumber, furs, and salted fish were 
sent to England in exchange for clothes, tools, and books, 
or whatever articles were needed ; thousands of cattle 
were already grazing in the pastures, while pigs rooted 
in the clearings, and helped to make ready the land for 
the plowman. Wheat and rye and other European 
grains were soon made to grow here, but the settlers 
were greatly benefited by the native maize, or Indian 
corn, which they found cultivated by the red men. 

Amid the hurry of pioneer work the interests of edu- 
cation were not forgotten. In order to keep their 
government safely under their own control, the settlers 
1 One of the oldest wooden houses in North America. 



9 6 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



allowed nobody but members of their own Congrega- 
tional churches to vote at elections or to hold office. 
In order to fit growing children for membership in the 
Congregational churches, it was necessary that they 
should know how to read the Bible, and common 
schools were founded for this purpose. So many of 
the leading settlers were university graduates, mostly 
from Cambridge, that a college seemed necessary for 
the colony. In 1636, it was voted to establish such a 




^^^l^y ? 9^^^^^^^^^^^^o4^' (o7iafond. 



college at Newtown, three miles west of Boston. Two 
Founding years later, a young clergyman, John Harvard, 
College? 1 ™ 1 dying childless, bequeathed his books and half 
1636. hi s estate to the new college, which was forth- 
with called by his name ; while in honor of the mother 

1 From the oldest known print of Harvard College, engraved in 1726; 
and representing the college as it appeared when ninety years old. It is 
now in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society. The 
building on the right, Massachusetts Hall, is still in use. 



§§ 45, 46. NEW ENGLAND. gf 

university, the name of the town was changed to Cam- 
bridge. 

45. Enemies of the New Colony. In all these things 
the settlers of Massachusetts were going ahead and 
doing just as they pleased. King Charles did not like 
to see such liberties taken with affairs of church and 
state. Besides, the new colony had some bitter enemies 
in England, among others, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and 
Captain John Mason, who had intended to colonize the 
New England coast with settlers of their own and for 
their own benefit. In 1636, the king enter- Charles 1. 
tained a scheme for annulling the Massachu- ^'^ 
setts charter and dividing up the land of the sachusett* 
settlers among these hostile and rival parties. When 
the people in Massachusetts heard of this plot they 
prepared to defend themselves. Forts were built in 
and about Boston harbor, with cannon to sink intrud- 
ing vessels, every village put its militia band in training, 
and a beacon was set up on the highest summit of the 
triple hill to alarm the neighboring country in case of 
need. Ever since then the hill has been known as 
Beacon Hill. But the danger was postponed by events 
in the Old World. War broke out in Scotland, and 
gave King Charles so much to think about that he 
forgot Massachusetts. But in later years, fresh Mason and 
trouble arose with Mason and Gorges and Gor s es - 
their friends. Some of Mason's people made settle- 
ments near the mouth of the Piscataqua River, and this 
was the beginning of what was afterward called New 
Hampshire. A few settlements along the coast of 
Maine were made by Gorges. 

46. Dissatisfied Settlers. Among the settlers who 
came to Massachusetts, there were some who did not 
like the way in which things were managed there. Of 



9 8 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



Founding 
of Rhode 
Island, 
1636-43 ; 
Roger Wil- 
liams. 



these dissenters the most famous was Roger Williams, 
who became pastor of a church at Salem, in 
1633. He was one of the noblest men of his 
time. Some of his opinions were such as 
very few people then held. He advocated the 
entire separation of church from state, declared 
that no man should be obliged to pay taxes to support 
a minister, that magistrates had no right to punish 
Sabbath-breaking or blasphemy, and that a man is re- 
sponsible for his 
opinions only to 
God and his own 
conscience. He 
also declared that 
the king of Eng- 
land could not 
rightfully give 
land in America 
to English set- 
tlers, because this 
land belonged not 
to the king of 
England but to 
the Indians. The 
magistrates and 
clergy of Massa- 
chusetts could not endure such opinions, and Williams 
was ordered to return to England. But he escaped into 
the wilderness, and made his way to the Narragansett 
Indians, whose language he learned to speak fluently. 
He entered into very friendly relations with that tribe 
of red men, and procured from them a tract of land 

1 This building is still standing, just back of the Essex Institute. 




ROGER WILLIAMS'S CHURCH IN SALEM (1633). 1 



§ 46. NEW ENGLAND. 99 

upon which, in 1636, he began to build a town. Thus 
far had God's mercy provided for him ; so he called the 
town Providence. He also named his next born son 
Providence, and his next daughter Mercy. 

In that same year, 1636, in which the town of Provi- 
dence was founded, there was a violent theological 
dispute in Boston, occasioned by the teachings of Mrs. 
Anne Hutchinson, a very bright and well-edu- 
cated lady from Lincolnshire. She held pecul- Hutchin- 
iar opinions about "grace" and "good works," 
and such a bitter controversy arose on these matters as 
to endanger the existence of the colony. Some men 
refused to serve in the militia because they did not 
agree with what the minister said in his Sunday ser- 
mon. So Mrs. Hutchinson was banished from Massa- 
chusetts. With some of her friends and adherents she 
bought the island of Aquidneck from the Indians for 
forty fathoms of white wampum, twenty hoes, and ten 
coats. The island soon came to be called Rhode Island, 
and at the upper end of it Mrs. Hutchinson and her 
friends founded the town of Portsmouth. Soon after- 
ward, William Coddington and others built the „ , ,. 

' to Codding- 

town of Newport at the southern end of the ton ; Gor- 
island. In 1643, a man of queer ideas, named 
Samuel Gorton, who had been driven from one settle- 
ment after another, founded the town of Warwick. After 
a while these various settlements coalesced under one 
government, forming a colony known as Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations. 

All Mrs. Hutchinson's friends who were driven from 
Boston did not go with her to Narrao-ansett „, „. 

to & The Pis- 

Bay ; some went in the opposite direction and cataqua 

settled Exeter, not far from the towns of 

Dover and Portsmouth, which Mason's men had already 



IOO COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

founded. Mason died about this time, leaving no one 
to push his claims vigorously, and people from Massa- 
chusetts founded the town of Hampton. In 1641, these 
four towns were added by their own consent to the do- 
main of Massachusetts, and so the matter stood until 
1679, when King Charles II. marked them off, with the 
wild country behind them, as the royal province of New 
Hampshire. 

47. The Beginnings of Connecticut. In the course 
of the year 1636, the beginnings of Connecticut were 
made. The Dutch, as we shall presently see, had 
already founded the colony which afterward became 
New York, and they laid claim to all the territory as far 
east as the Connecticut River. In the summer of 1633, 
the Dutch built a fort about where Hartford now stands, 
Dut h nd an< ^ * n *kat same summer, some Pilgrims from 
Pilgrims on Plymouth went up the river in a small ship, 

the Con- 

necticut with the frame of a wooden house on board. 
As they approached the fort at Hartford the 
Dutch told them to turn back or they would be fired 
upon ; but the Pilgrims kept on their way and the 
Dutch concluded not to fire. The Pilgrims set up their 
house on the site of Windsor and began trading with 
the Indians. 

The fur trade was the chief object for which English 
and Dutch wished to possess this region. Each wished 
to monopolize such a gainful trade. The younger John 
Winthrop, son of the founder of Boston, and one of 
the most accomplished men of his time, saw the im- 

' portance of the situation. In 1635, he estab- 

Brooke lished at the mouth of the river a fort which 

shut out the Dutch and made it impossible for 

them to keep hold of their position at Hartford. Two 

of Winthrop's principal patrons were the well-known 



§ 47- NEW ENGLAND. IOI 

Puritan noblemen, Lord Say and Lord Brooke, and 
after them the fort was called Say-Brooke. 

In the course of this year, twenty vessels came from 
England to Massachusetts, bringing $,000 settlers. 
There was plenty of room for all near Boston if they 
had been able to agree on questions of government. 
But many people thought the clergy were getting too 
much power, and disapproved the policy of allowing 
none but church members to vote. These feelings 
were especially strong in Dorchester, Watertown, and 
Cambridge (then still called Newtown). The pastor at 
Cambridge was Thomas Hooker, one of the Thomas 
most learned and eloquent of the Puritan lead- Hooker - 
ers. He believed that the whole people ought to be 
governed by the whole people, or as nearly so as pos- 
sible. In other words, he believed that all the people 
ought to take part, directly or indirectly, in the work 
of governing ; that those who do not themselves hold 
office at least ought to vote. On the other hand, Gov- 
ernor Winthrop believed that a large part of the people 
are always unfit to take part in governing. He believed 
that the whole people ought to be governed by a part of 
the people, supposed to consist of the best and wisest 
persons. Thus we see that Winthrop's idea of govern- 
ment was aristocratic, while Hooker's idea was demo- 
cratic. One hundred and sixty years later (1790- 1800), 
there was the same kind of opposition be- , . 

1 * . Anstoc- 

tween two other great men, Alexander Hamil- racy vs. 

dc ni oc rzi c v 

ton and Thomas Jefferson. The question as 
to just what is the best kind of government is a difficult 
question, and probably the last word on the subject has 
not yet been said. 

We do not hear of any bitter quarrel between the 
people who thought like Winthrop and those who 



102 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

thought like Hooker. What happened was that, in 
1636, a great part of the congregations of Cambridge, 
Watertown, and Dorchester journeyed to the Connecti- 
cut valley, of iwhich they had heard that it contained 
Settlement much fine meadow land well fitted for farming. 
tk^t° nnec " The Cambridge people, led by Hooker, founded 
1636. Hartford, the Dorchester people settled Wind- 
sor, and those from Watertown settled Wethersfield. 
About the same time, William Pynchon led a party from 
Roxbury to the meadows above Windsor, and founded 
the town of Springfield. 

All these four river towns at first allowed themselves 
to remain part of Massachusetts, and Springfield has 
always remained so. But early in 1639, the people of the 
other three towns met at Hartford and agreed to govern 
themselves according to a written constitution drawn up 
by Hooker and others. By this constitution the three 
towns, Windsor, Hartford, and Wethersfield, 

The Con- ... . . 

necticut were united into a republic, which came to be 
founded by called Connecticut. This seems to have been 
constitu? tne ^ rst tmie in the history of the world that 
tion. a state was created by a written constitution. 

In the colony thus founded there was no re- 
striction of suffrage to church members. 

48. The Overthrow of the Pequots. Before the 
memorable meeting at Hartford, the settlers had their 
first taste of Indian war. All the tribes in New Eng- 
land belonged to the Algonquin family. Among them 
we have already had occasion to mention the Wam- 
indian panoags in the Plymouth colony, and the Nar- 
tnbesin ragansetts on the bay of that name. To the 

southern 



NewEng- west of the latter, in the valley of the river 

since called Thames, dwelt the Pequots ; west 

and northwest of these, between the Thames and Con- 



§ 4 S NEW ENGLAND. IO3 

necticut valleys, lived the Mohegans. The Pequots 
bullied the neighboring tribes with impunity, and were 
considered invincible. 

Several murders of white men, for which the Pequots 
were at least partly to blame, determined the govern- 
ment at Boston to call that tribe to account. In the 
summer of 1636, John Endicott attacked them and 
sought to bring them to terms, but this attack, „ ,, 

& . & . Troubles 

in which a few were killed, only served to en- with the 
rage them. They tried to induce the Narra- 
gansetts to join them in warfare upon the English, but 
the influence of Roger Williams over the Narragansett 
tribe prevented this, and the Pequots went into the war 
without allies. The new settlements in the Connecticut 
valley were dangerously exposed, and there the savages 
began their bloody work. They made no general attack, 
but skulked about near the settlement, waylaid a few 
persons at a time, and put them to death, often with 
frightful tortures. Some of the victims were burned 
alive, others were hacked to pieces with stone knives. 

In the spring of 1637, the English made up their 
minds to put an end to this sort of thing. The Con- 
necticut towns sent out ninety men under Captain 
Mason, and these were joined by twenty from Massa- 
chusetts, commanded by Captain Underhill, as well as 
by seventy Mohegans who were glad of such a chance 
for vengeance upon their old tyrants, the Pequots. The 
greater part of the Pequot warriors were col- The Pe- 
lected in a circular stockaded fort by the hiSated anm " 
Mystic River, near the site of Stonington. 1637 - 
The Indians made a mistake in cooping themselves up 
in a fort ; they would have been much safer if scattered 
about in the woods. The little English party surprised 
the fort an hour before dawn. A barking dog aroused 



104 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VL 



the sleeping Indians, and the cry "Owanux, owanux!" 
(Englishmen !) was heard, but it was too late. Mason 
already held one of the entrances, and Underhill the 
other ; firebrands were hurled among the wigwams, and 
in a few moments the whole inclosure was in a light 
blaze. The few Indians who escaped the flames were 
at once shot down. Of more than four hundred in the 
fort, only five got away ; all the rest were killed. This 
terrible blow completely crushed the spirit of the Pe- 
quots. The remainder of the tribe started to fly to the 

Hudson River, but 
they were pursued 
by the white men 
and were nearly all 
slain. The last of 
their sachems was 
captured at a point 
on the shore of what 
is now Guilford ; his 
head was cut off and 
set upon a pole, and 
the place has ever 
since been called Sa- 
chem's Head. Thus 

PLAN OF PEQUOT FORT.l ^ p^^ ^.^ &Q 

long deemed invincible, was wiped out of existence, and 
all the other tribes were so terrified that not an Indian 
dared to molest a white man again for nearly forty years. 
49. The New Haven Colony. While this war was 
going on, a large company, including many wealthy 
persons, arrived from England, under the lead of their 
principal pastor, John Davenport. They wished to 




1 From Palfrey's New England, i. 466. 
original drawing by Captain Underhill. 



A reduced facsimile from the 



§§ 49, 5°- NEW ENGLAND. 105 

form a little state by themselves, with no law except 
that which could be found in the Bible ; for example, 
they would not have trial by jury because the laws of 
Moses did not have it. The Pequot war drew the atten- 
tion of the English to the country along the northern 
shore of Long Island Sound. So these new-comers, in 
the spring of 1638, sailed to a pleasant harbor, where 
they founded the town of New Haven. The next year 
Milford and Guilford were founded, and, in Foundin 
164.1, Stamford: and these little towns joined ° f th e New 

• . 1 • Haven col- 

themselves together in a kind of federal union ony. 

known as the New Haven colony. This was 

the last separate colony founded in New England. In 

1644, the little settlement at Saybrook was joined to 

Connecticut. 

50. The Story in Brief of the Five New England 
Colonies. Taken all together, the colonization of New 
England was a rather complicated affair ; and now that 
we have told the story, it is worth while to sum up the 
situation briefly for the sake of greater clearness. First, 
then, there were, by the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
tury, five New England colonies. By far the most 
populous was Massachusetts, or, as it was called for a 
hundred and fifty years, Massachusetts Bay. In 1650, 
this population was mostly confined to Boston and about 
thirty other villages in the three neighboring counties. 
Everywhere else was the wild forest. Northeast of 
Massachusetts was the little group of New Hampshire 
villages already mentioned, and the scattered settle- 
ments on the Maine coast, but as yet these had not 
grown into distinct colonies so as to be ranked in our 
group of five. South of Massachusetts was Plymouth, 
the second of our five colonies, but first in age and often 
called the Old Colony ; it extended southward as far as 



106 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

Yarmouth and westward -as far as Taunton. The third 
colony, called Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 
has already been described. The fourth colony was 
Connecticut. The fifth was New Haven. 

In 1643, the rebellion against Charles I. had broken 
Condition out, and the great emigration of Puritans to 
OTiesk! COl ~ New England came to an end. Some people 
1643. even went back to England to help their 

brethren against the tyrannical king. By this time 
there were about 26,000 people in New England, of 
whom more than 5,000 had been born there ; all the 
rest came from England. Away from the coast all the 
people were farmers ; on the coast all were farmers and 
fishermen. As a rule, every man owned the house in 
which he lived and the land which he tilled. Already 
the houses were well built and comfortable, and the 
condition of the people was very far above that of Euro- 
pean peasants. The ministers were mostly men of great 
learning and high character. Education was general. 
The first printing press north of Mexico was set up in 
Cambridge, in 1639, an ^ the first volume printed on it 
was the celebrated Bay Psalm Book, in 1640. 

As for the governments of these five colonies, we 
have already seen that the Company of Massachusetts 
Bay was chartered by Charles I., and that after it had 
come to New England the king repented of what he had 
done and meant to take away the charter, but was pre- 
vented by troubles at home. The governments of the 
other four colonies were made by the people without 
Popular consulting the king in any way. In the writ- 
ment 11 " ten constitution of Connecticut, there was no 
inTii of Up ment ion of a king or any other authority what- 
them. ever except that of the people themselves. In 

all the five colonies there was a legislature, usually called 



§§ 50-52. NEW ENGLAND. 107 

the General Court, consisting of representatives from 
each of the towns. The people also elected their gov- 
ernors ; and we have seen how they managed their 
church affairs without the slightest regard to the opin- 
ions or wishes of the king and the bishops in England. 

51. The New England Confederation. In 1643, the 
four colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, 
and New Haven formed a confederation for purposes 
of defense in case of attacks or depredations by the 
Dutch on the Hudson River, or the Indians. The name 
of the confederation was "The United Colonies of 
New England." Its affairs were managed by a board 
of eight commissioners, two from each colony. This 
board undertook to call out troops in case of Th „ 
need, and to settle disputes between the colo- England 

T . r . . Confeder- 

nies. It did not interfere in any way with the acy. 
independent internal government of each col- 
ony. Rhode Island was not admitted into the confed- 
eration, because there was so much ill feeling toward 
the followers of Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson. 
The people of New England did not ask anybody's per- 
mission when they formed this confederation, but for 
the present there was nobody in England liable to dis- 
turb them. The party which overthrew the king, and 
beheaded him, in 1649, was m sympathy with the men 
of New England. The mighty Oliver Cromwell was 
their friend. So there were twenty years of remarkable 
peace and prosperity, until after Charles II. had been 
restored to his father's throne. 

52. The Persecution of the Quakers. At the time 
when that event occurred, in 1660, there was fierce ex- 
citement in Boston. We have seen how the magistrates 
and clergy in that little town used to drive away such 
men as Roger Williams and others whose opinions they 



108 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

disapproved. But at length some people who held very 
unpopular opinions came to Boston, and would not go 
away when they were told to go. These resolute people 
were Quakers. Belonging to one of the noblest and 
purest of Christian sects, they were, nevertheless, re- 
garded with horror by the Puritans of New England, 
and all the colonies except Rhode Island made laws 
against them. But as the Quakers came over from 
England not so much to escape persecution as to preach 
their doctrines, they were not satisfied with staying in 
Rhode Island where nobody molested them. They in- 
sisted on coming into Massachusetts. Those who came 
Persecu- were banished under penalty of death ; but 
Quakers they returned, and at length, in 1659, two were 
1659-61. hanged on a gallows erected on Boston Com- 
mon. The next year, Mrs. Dyer, a Quaker lady of good 
family, was hanged at the same place, and, in 1661, there 
was one more victim. This excess of severity defeated 
its own purpose. A majority of the people in Boston 
disapproved of the executions, and at the last one the 
magistrates feared an insurrection and a rescue. The 
tragedy ended, in 1661, with the victory of the Quakers, 
when one of their number, the brave Wenlock Christi- 
son, strode into the court room and with uplifted finger 
threatened the judges. " I am come here to warn you," 
said he, "that ye shed no more innocent blood." He 
was seized and condemned to the gallows, but the magis- 
trates did not dare to execute the sentence. After that 
time Quakers were now and then imprisoned or whipped, 
but they had proved that if they chose they could come 
to Boston and stay there. 

This putting Quakers to death was a great assump- 
tion of authority on the part of the Massachusetts gov- 
ernment. Charles II. denied that the government had 



§§52,53- NEW ENGLAND. IO9 

any such authority, and, in 1661, he issued an order in 
council forbidding the General Court of Mas- Action of 
sachusetts to inflict bodily punishment upon Regarding 1 ' 
Quakers, and directing it to send them to Eng- Quakers. 
land for trial. This order was never obeyed in Massa- 
chusetts. 

53. The King's Quarrel with New England. There 
were, however, plenty of malcontents in England who 
had been sent back there because the Puritans of the 
New World did not like their society. Such persons 
poured their grievances into the royal ear. They said 
that the people of New England were all rebels at heart ; 
and it was not strange if King Charles was inclined 
to believe such stories. The colony of New Haven 
had especially aroused his anger. Two of the regicide 
judges, who had sat in the court that condemned his 
father, had escaped to New England, and of- Theregi- 
ficers were sent across the ocean in pursuit Cldes- 
of them. If the judges had been caught and taken 
to London, they would have been disemboweled and 
quartered, and their severed heads would have been set 
up on Temple Bar. These two judges, whose names 
were Goffe and Whalley, had been generals in Crom- 
well's army. They found refuge in New Haven, where 
the bold minister, Davenport, openly aided and com- 
forted them. They were never caught, but lived the 
rest of their days in New England. Some of their es- 
capes were romantic enough ; it is said that once, when 
hotly chased, they came to a small river, and crawled 
under the wooden bridge, where they lurked while the 
pursuers galloped overhead and away on a fruitless 
search. 

King Charles contrived to punish New Haven in such 
a way as to snub and irritate Massachusetts. The 



HO COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

latter colony agreed with New Haven in allowing none 
but members of the Congregational church to vote or 
hold office, and both colonies disapproved of Connecti- 
cut's more liberal policy. So the king, in 1662, sup- 
New Ha- pressed the New Haven colony and annexed it 
nexed to to Connecticut. At the same time, he granted 
£u°t nneCtl " to Connecticut a very liberal charter which in 
1662. substance confirmed the constitution of 1639. 

Rhode Island also received a similar charter. As for 
Massachusetts, she was ordered, among other things, to 
permit the Episcopal form of worship, but she paid no 
heed to the order. For a moment she seemed in danger 
of losing her charter, but presently affairs in England 
occupied the king's attention so that Massachusetts was 
for several years more allowed to go on in her own way. 
54. King Philip's War. During this interval, New 
England was afflicted by a terrible Indian war. As a 
rule, the settlers treated the natives with justice and 
kindness. The learned John Eliot translated the Bible 
into their language, and converted many by his preach- 
ing. In 1674, there were 4,000 Indians in New England 
„ , . who professed to be Christians. Schools were 

Relations p x 

with the in- introduced among them, arid many learned 
to read and write. The English always paid 
for the land which they occupied. But the Indians 
hated them none the less for that. They felt that the 
white men were there as masters ; they dreaded them, 
and keenly watched for a chance to destroy them. 
Besides, the English could not wholly keep clear of the 
quarrels between the different tribes. The Mohegans 
were always their friends, but this very fact made the 
Narragansetts their enemies. In 1643, a war between 
these two tribes resulted in the capture of the famous 
Narragansett sachem, Miantonomo, who was put to 



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§ 54. NEW ENGLAND. Ill 

death by the Mohegans with the full consent and ap- 
proval of the English. This made the Narragansetts 
thirst for revenge, but they remembered the fate of 
the Pequots, and it was long before they dared to move. 
By 1670, the red men had acquired a good many fire- 
arms and become expert in the use of them, so that 
they were not so unequal a match for the white men as 
formerly. About this time, there seems to have been 
some kind of an understanding on the part of three 
tribes that at the first opportunity the English should 
be atiacked. The three tribes were the Narragansetts, 
the Wampanoags, and the Nipmucks who roamed in 
the highlands of what is now Worcester County. The 
first attack was made by the Wampanoags „ „ ., 

J , r ° King Phil- 

under their sachem called Philip, a son of ip's War. 
Massasoit ; and the war has always been known 
as King Philip's War, although the Narragansett Canon- 
chet, son of Mian- 

tonomo, played a ^flMZojj a&aJi^* ti tffc L C&771& 
more extensive part / A ¥) * 

in it. In June, ** S \™«M^ 

1675, the Wampa- KING PHILIP>S MARK-1 

noags burned the 

village of Swanzey and three other villages in the 
Plymouth colony, and murdered many of the inhabit- 
ants. Some of the victims were burned alive. The 
Wampanoags were soon put down, but Philip escaped 
to the Nipmucks, and these savages carried on the war 
for a year, burning and slaughtering all the way from 
the Connecticut River, which was then the western 
frontier, even to within a dozen miles of Boston. In 
December, the Narragansetts were about to begin, but 
the English detected their schemes and were before- 

1 From The Memorial History of Boston, i. 325. 



112 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI. 

hand. Canonchet had collected more than 3,000 of his 
Indians in a palisaded fortress in the middle of a great 
swamp in South Kingston, Rhode Island. A force 
of 1,000 white men took this place by storm and de- 
stroyed it, slaughtering more than 1,000 Indians. By 
midsummer of 1676, the three tribes concerned in the 
war were annihilated. Nearly all the warriors, includ- 
Extermi- ing Canonchet and Philip, were killed ; those 
the'indian wno were left were sold as slaves in the West 
tribes. Indies and elsewhere. The Tarratines, along 

the Maine coast, took up the fight and carried it on till 
1678, when they too were finally suppressed. Scarcely 
any Indians were left within the New England colonies 
except the friendly Mohegans. But this was not accom- 
plished until terrible havoc had been wrought among 
the English, chiefly in Massachusetts and Plymouth. 
Of ninety towns, twelve had been utterly destroyed, 
while more than forty others had been the scene of fire 
and massacre. More than a thousand men had been 
killed, and a great many women and children. There 
was a great war debt, which it took several years to pay. 
55. The Viceroyalty of Andros. Soon after the 
close of King Philip's War, King Charles found his 
hands free to take up his old quarrel with Massachu- 
setts. Part of this quarrel related to the claims made 
by that colony to rule over the eastern settlements 
made by Mason and Gorges. The king's judges decided 
these claims against Massachusetts. Then Massachu- 
setts bought Maine of the heirs of Gorges, paying 
;£i,200 for it. This made the king very angry; he can- 
celed the transaction and told Massachusetts to keep 
her hands off from Maine. As for the Mason territory, 
the king now (1679) made it a royal province, and called 
it New Hampshire. 



§55- NEW ENGLAND. H3 

These things created much ill feeling in Massachu- 
setts, but still more serious trouble was caused by 
navigation laws passed by Parliament interfering with 
the trade of the colonies. These laws were generally 
disobeyed, and the 
king thought it high 
time to enforce 
them. But the most 
grievous offense of 
Massachusetts, in 
his eyes, was the re- 
fusal to allow Epis- 
copal churches in 
the colony, or to let 
anybody but Congre- 
gationalist church 
members vote or 
hold office. 

Now by this time 
a majority of the 
grown men in the 

colony were not church members, and they did not 
like to be. governed by a minority. So there grew up 
a small party opposed to the clergy and inclined to side 
with the king. This was the beginning of the Tory 
party in New England, and Joseph Dudley may be con- 
sidered its founder. The quarrel went on, growing 
more and more bitter, until 1684, when the Theannu i_ 
king succeeded in annulling the charter of Mas- lin s of the 

1 ^ • 1 1 charter of 

sachusetts. This destroyed the government Massachu- 
which had begun in 1629. Before Charles II. 
had completed his arrangements for a new govern- 
ment he died, early in 1685, and was succeeded by his 

1 After an engraving in Andros Tracts, vol. i., made from a photograph 
of a portrait painted from life. 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS. 1 



H4 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VI. 



James II. 
sends An- 
dros to gov- 
ern the 
northern 
colonies. 
1685-89. 



brother, James II. The new king sent over one of his 
favorite officers, Sir Edmund Andros, to govern ail 
New England as a viceroy. As we shall see 
hereafter, the French in Canada were getting 
to be dangerous neighbors, and the British 
government wished to unite all its northern 
colonies under a single ruler, so that it might 
be easier to put forth all their military force quickly. So 

not only all of 
New England, but 
New York and 
New Jersey, like- 
wise, were put 
under the abso- 
lute rule of An- 
dros. He was 
directed to seize 
the charters of 
Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, but 
failed to do so. 
When he visited 
Hartford, in 1687, 
he could not find 
the charter; it is 
said that Captain 
Wadsworth had 
hidden it in the 
hollow trunk of a mighty oak-tree, which was always 
afterward called the Charter Oak. 

Andros had his headquarters in Boston. He began 
building an Episcopal church there, still known as the 
King's Chapel ; and until it was done he had Episco- 
pal service performed in the Old South Meeting-house. 







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THE DOMINION OF NEW ENGLAND UNDER SIR 
EDMUND ANDROS, l688. 



§§ 55. 5 6 - NEW ENGLAND. II5 

The people did not like this, but they had to submit to 
things which they liked still less. Their legislature was 
abolished, arbitrary taxes were levied, men were Tyranny of 
arrested and sent to jail, and estates and goods Andros - 
were confiscated without due process of law. Dudley 
was appointed censor of the press, and nothing was 
allowed to be printed without his permission. Thus, 
as there was no security for person or property, and 
no way for people to express their opinions, the gov- 
ernment of Andros was a despotism. It was like the 
government which his royal master was trying to set 
up in England and Scotland. If it had continued, there 
would certainly have been a rebellion in New England. 
But James II. had reigned less than four years when 
he was dethroned, and fled from the kingdom, and his 
nephew, William III., Prince of Orange, was made king 
of England. No sooner was the news of this T 

_ Insurrec- 

known in Boston than the people rose in in- tionin Bos- 
surrection, April 18 and 19, 1689 ; Andros and overthrow 
Dudley were thrown into prison, and the old ° An os ' 
government was restored. This revolution extended 
through New England and into New York. 

56. King William's Arrangements in 1692. But 
King William, when he arranged things in 1692, only 
partly sanctioned these proceedings. He let Connecti- 
cut and Rhode Island keep their old and beloved char- 
ters. But as for Plymouth, he annexed it to Massachu- 
setts, of which it has ever since remained a part. He 
kept New Hampshire a separate province, but N 
he annexed to Massachusetts not only Maine rangements 
but even Nova Scotia, which had lately been Ham in. 
taken from the French. He allowed Massa- 169 ' 
chusetts to keep her free government, with her town 
meetings and elected legislature ; but henceforth Epis- 



Il6 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VI 

copalians and others beside Congregationalists were to 
vote, and to hold office, and to have their own churches. 
Many people approved of these liberal provisions, and 
in course of time all would have done so. But there 
was one thing in this new charter of 1692 that people 
did not approve. Henceforth, the governor was not to 
be elected by the people, but appointed by the crown. 
The small Tory party liked this well enough, but 
nobody else did. The royal governors, as they were 
called, were almost always unpopular, even when they 
were able and good men. Soon after 1692, they entered 
upon a series of quarrels with the legislature, and these 
quarrels continued until the bloodshed on Lexington 
green, in 1775, ushered in the War for Independence. 

The events just related tended to bring Massachusetts 
and Virginia into sympathy with each other. In con- 
tending against their royal governors, the people in each 
of these colonies had a sore grievance to remember. 
Virginia did not forget the tyranny of Berkeley, nor did 
Massachusetts forget the tyranny of Andros. 

topics and questions. 

41. Unsuccessful Attempts at Settlement. 

1. The country of North Virginia. 

2. Gosnold's colony. 

3. The Popham colony. 

4. Captain John Smith and North Virginia. 

5. Smith's map of the country. 

42. Puritans and Separatists. 

1. What religious liberty exists to-day ? 

2. Tell about such liberty in Queen Elizabeth's time. 

3. What changes were brought about in England by the refor- 

mation ? 

4. What requirements of people were still made there ? 

5. What did the Puritans wish to accomplish ? 

6. Why were the Separatists so called ? 

7. Why were they persecuted ? 



Ch. VI. NEW ENGLAND. WJ 

43. The Pilgrims in New England. 

1. Why did the Separatists go to Leyden? 

2. Why were they not Content to stay in Holland? 

3. What plans for going to the new world did they make ? 

4. Describe the voyage. 

5. Tell about their first winter at Plymouth. 

6. How did the Pilgrims deal with the Wampanoags ? 

7. How did they deal with the Narragansetts ? 

8. Tell about the growth of Plymouth colony. 

44. The Puritans in New England. 

1. The colony of Massachusetts Bay. 

a. The Puritan party in the times of Charles I. 

b. The settlement of Salem. 

c. The land bought from the Plymouth Company. 

d. The management of the Company of Massachusetts 

Bay. 

e. The transfer of its charter. 

2. The great settlement. 

a. John Winthrop's expedition. 

b. Various settlements made in 1630. 

c. The founding of Boston. 

3. The Puritans as Separatists. 

a. Were they Separatists in the mother country ? 

b. How far did they modify the Episcopal service ? 

c. How did they finally treat loyal Episcopalians ? 

4. Parishes and townships. 

a. The settlement and its single church. 

b. The town meeting and the parish meeting. 

c. The first settlers came over as what bodies? 

d. The Massachusetts township. 

e. The meeting-house and the townhouse. 

f. The common. 

g. Homes for defense. 

5. Prosperous beginnings. 

a. The extent of the settlements in 1634. 

b. The kinds of business carried on. 

c. Indian corn. 

6. Education. 

a. The first voters. 

b. The object of the first schools. 

c. The founding of Harvard College. 



Il8 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

45. Enemies of the New Colony. 

1. The king's displeasure. 

2. The hostility of Mason and Gorges. 

3. What scheme grew out of these feelings? 

4. How the people made ready to defend themselves. 

5. The beginnings of New Hampshire. 

46. Dissatisfied Settlers. 

1. Roger Williams. 

a. Some of his opinions. 

b. The consequence of holding them. 

c. The founding of Providence. 

2. Anne Hutchinson and her friends. 

a. The reason for her banishment. 

b. The settlement of Rhode Island. 

c. The colony of Rhode Island and Providence Planta- 

tions. 

d. The Piscataqua towns. 

e. The royal province of New Hampshire. 

47. The Beginnings of Connecticut. 

1. The Dutch and the English. 

a. The Dutch claim. 

b. The Pilgrims and the Dutch fort. 

c. Why possession of the region was sought. 

d. The " Say-Brooke " fort. 

2. Thomas Hooker. 

a. The flocking of settlers to Boston. 

b. Differences about the method of government. 

c. Hooker's views on the subject. 

d. Winthrop's views on the subject. 

e. The two ideas briefly expressed. 

f. The same ideas nearly two centuries later. 

g. The migration to Connecticut. 

3. The four river towns. 

a. Their names. 

b. Their allegiance at first. 

c. The Hartford agreement. 

d. An interesting fact about this agreement. 

e. The management of the suffrage. 

48. The Overthrow of the Pequots. 

1. Locate four of the Algonquin tribes. 

2, How did the Pequots tre-at their neighbors? 



Ch.VI. NEW ENGLAND. ' II9 

3. Why did the English seek to punish the Pequots? 

4. How was Captain Mason's expedition made up? 

5. How did the Pequots plan to defend themselves? 

6. Tell about the fight. 

7. What was the effect of the terrible lesson given the Pequots? 

49. The New Haven Colony. 

1. What kind of a state did John Davenport's company wish 

to form? 

2. Where did the new-comers settle ? 

3. What was the colony made up of? 

50. The Story in Brief of the Five New England Colonies. 

1. Name the five colonies. 

2. When did the Puritans stop coming over, and why? 

3. Tell about (a) the population of New England in 1643, (b) 

the occupations of the people, (c) their homes, (d) their 
love of education, and (e) their first printing. 

4. Compare Massachusetts with each of the other colonies in 

respect to government. 

5. In what respect did the five governments agree? 

51. The New England Confederation. 

1. Why was it formed? 

2. By whom was it managed ? 

3. What did the commissioners undertake to do ? 

4. What did they refrain from doing ? 

5. Why was Rhode Island left out? 

6. Why did England fail to oppose this scheme ? 

52. The Persecution of the Quakers. 

1. How did the Puritans regard the Quakers? 

2. What penalties did they inflict on the Quakers? 

3. What was the effect of this severity? 

4. What action did Charles II. take about the matter? 

53. The King's Quarrel with New England.- 

1. The stories told him about the New England people. 

2. How New Haven especially excited his anger. 

3. The pursuits of the regicides. 

4. Points of agreement between New Haven and Massachu 

setts. 

5. How the king punished them both. 

54. King Philip's War. 

1. The general treatment of the Indians by the settlers. 

2. The secret of the Indians' hatred of the white man. 



120 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

3. How the English angered the Narragansetts. 

4. The Indian situation in 1670. 

5. How the war got its name. 

6. How the war was carried on. 

7. Canonchet's overthrow. 

8. The result of the war to the Indians. 

9. The havoc wrought among the English. 

55. The Viceroyalty of Andros. 

1. Massachusetts and her rule of the eastern settlements. 

2. Massachusetts and the navigation laws. 

3. Massachusetts and the Episcopal church. 

4. The beginning of the Tory party. 

5. The annulling of the charter in 1684. 

6. James II. and Andros. 

7. The reason for uniting the colonies. 

8. The extent of Andros's rule. 

9. Two charters saved. 

10. Andros and his church. 

11. The tyranny of Andros. 

12. The overthrow of Andros. 

56. King William's Arrangements in 1692. 

1. What he did [a) with Connecticut v and Rhode Island, (b) 

with Plymouth, (c) with New Hampshire, (d) with Maine, 
and (e) with Massachusetts. 

2. A feature of her charter that Massachusetts did not like. 

3. Quarrels with the royal governors. 

4. The upshot of these quarrels. 

5. How Massachusetts and Virginia were brought into mutual 

sympathy. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. What was the difference between the Pilgrims and the other 

Puritans? In answering this question, consider (a) their 
differences in religious belief, (b) the reasons why they came 
over, (t-) who were the more tolerant, and (d) who left, on 
the whole, the stronger impress on New England history. 

2. What is meant by a tolerant spirit? Are there any opinions 

that ought not to be tolerated ? If so, of what character are 
they ? Is there any conduct that ought not to be tolerated ? 
If so, of what character is it? Should all things that ought 
not to be tolerated be forbidden by law ? Does a tolerant 



Ch. VI. 



NEW ENGLAND. 



121 



spirit require one to accept or indorse an opinion toward 
which he is tolerant? Mention some things the Puritans 
would not and could not endure, but which people cheerfully 
permit to-day. Mention any instance of intolerance you 
have noted among your acquaintances or in yourself. Who 
are the more tolerant, the ignorant or the educated ? In 
Fiske's The Beginnings of New England, find what John 
Cotton, John Winthrop, and Roger Williams each thought 
of toleration. 

3. What instances of suffering for food are recorded in the history 

of American colonists? Why should there have been any 
suffering on this account ? What forethought needs to be 
exercised to day that people may not starve when winter 
comes? Is there any country where the inhabitants use no 
forethought, and yet have enough to eat? If so, describe 
the country, and tell what sort of people it supports. 

4. Mention (a) some American names derived from European per- 

sonages, (3) some from European places, {c) some from 
Indian sources, and (d) some from other sources. Give the 
origin and meaning of the names of your state, county, and 
city or town. The teacher may show how history lurks in 
names as originally used, though it is generally unheeded in 
their subsequent applications. Thus, in England, Norfolk, 
or the north folk, is north of Suffolk, or the south folk, as 
history requires, while in Massachusetts Norfolk is south of 
Suffolk in defiance of history and the meaning of the names. 

5. Were the Indians more cruel than the whites in New England 

warfare? Had they a just cause in King Philip's War? 
Had the colonists a just cause? In what sense may both 
parties have been in the right ? 

6. Make out a table of the five New England colonies as they 

existed in 1650, following the model here given: 



NAMES OF THE COLONIES. 


FIRST SETTLEMENTS. 


DATES. 


BY WHOM. 











7. Tell something about the Great Rebellion in England, and how 

it affected New England. 

8. Tell something about Oliver Cromwell. 



122 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VL 

9. Who were the regicides ? Give some idea of their number. 
What reasons did they have for that action which made 
them regicides ? Who approved their action and who de- 
nounced it ? What is meant by the divine right of kings ? 
Do Englishmen admit such a right to-day ? 

10. Why were the Puritans so bitter against the Quakers ? To what 

excesses of conduct did extreme persons among the Quakers 
go ? How did, Roger Williams treat the Quakers ? Show 
how the Quakers triumphed at last. (For answers see Fiske's 
The Beginnings of New England.) 

11. Fill out the following table to cover New England history from 

1620 to 1692 : 



ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 



YEARS OF REIGN. 



ONE OR TWO NEW ENGLAND EVENTS 
IN EACH REIGN. 



Why did King Charles II. annul the charter of Massachusetts? 
What rights was Massachusetts deprived of by this act? 

13. What was the reason for annexing the New Haven colony to 

Connecticut? The Plymouth colony to Massachusetts? 

14. Rhode Island has two capitals, and Connecticut had two down 

to 1873. Account for these capitals. Why did not Massa- 
chusetts have two capitals after 1692? 

15. What was the object of the navigation laws? Why were they 

disobeyed? Was it right for New Englanders to disobey 
them? What is the proper attitude of the good citizen 
toward a foolish or unwise law? Is general disobedience 
of law and authority ever justifiable ? Was the overthrow 
of Andros justifiable ? 

16. What was the leading or characteristic belief of the English 

Tory ; that is, with what party did he side ? Was he con- 
servative or progressive ? What is conservatism in politics ? 
What is liberalism ? Would a Tory to-day agree necessarily 
with a Tory of the time of Charles II.? Mention a few 
American Tories. Why in early American politics did the 
word Tory become a word of reproach ? 

17. The two original charters of Massachusetts are hung in frames 

in the office of the secretary of the Commonwealth, and may 
be seen by any visitor. What charters are these ? 

18. Did hiding the Connecticut charter from Andros save the rights 



Ch. VI. NEW ENGLAND. I2 o 

guaranteed the Connecticut people by this charter? Did 
Andros rule Connecticut? Could he have done it legally 
under Connecticut's charter? How came Connecticut to 
have a charter when she began without one ? 
19. Does the story of the New Englanders thus far show that they 
were hard to govern or easy? What kind of government 
was resisted by them ? What kind was acquiesced in ? Did 
they improve with experience in managing their affairs? 
If so, in what respects ? Mention a few humble beginnings 
in New England history that have since become great. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from Fiske's The Beginnings of New England: 

1. Three methods of nation-making. 

a. The Oriental, 9-1 1. 

b. The Roman, 12-20. 

c. The English, 20-32. 

2. The Separatists, 66-68. 

3. King James's vow to make them conform, 68-71. 

4. The church at Scrooby, 71-73. 

5. Why the Pilgrims did not stay in Holland, 74, 75. 

6. The voyage of the Mayflower, 80-82. 

7. The Pilgrims and the Indians, 83-86. 

8. The founding of Massachusetts, 103, 104. 

9. How a stray pig shaped the course of government, 105-108. 

10. The threefold danger of 1636. 

a. From King Charles I., 111-113. 

b. From Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, 1 14-120 

c. From the Pequot War, 121, 122. 

11. The history of the Pequot War, 128-134. 

12. The Connecticut pioneers, 125-128. 

13. Troubles with the Quakers, 179-191. 

14. The regicides, 192-194. 

15. King Philip's War. 

a. Puritan treatment of the Indians, 199-206. 

b. Immediate causes of the war, 206-214. 

c. The beginning of hostilities, 214-221. 

d. The overthrow of the Narragansetts, 222-229. 

e. Hostilities still kept up, 230-236. 

f. Results of the war, 237-241. 

16. The tyranny of Andros, 267-272. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE MIDDLE ZONE. 1609-1702. 

57. The Pounding of Maryland. It will be remem- 
bered that in the English plan of 1606 for colonizing 
North America, three parallel strips, or zones, were 
designated, beginning upon the Atlantic seacoast and 
extending westward nobody knew how far. We have 
seen how the great colony of Virginia was planted in 
the southern zone, and how the group of colonies called 
New England was planted in the northern zone. We 
The three have followed the story of Virginia down to 
zones. 1677, after the end of Bacon's rebellion; and 

we have followed the story of New England down to 
the new charter of Massachusetts, in 1692. We have 
now to see what was going on meanwhile in the middle 
zone, which comprised the country between the Poto- 
mac and Hudson rivers. We will begin with Mary- 
land, because it was founded in a different way from 
Virginia or Massachusetts, and it is now time for us to 
explain this new way of founding a colony. 

It will be remembered that the first English attempt 
at colonizing North America was made by a private 
individual, Sir Walter Raleigh, and it was too difficult 
and costly a task for him even with his great wealth. 
„,, . . The work was next undertaken by those twin 

The joint- m m J 

stock com- joint-stock partnerships called the London and 

Plymouth companies. We have seen how the 

London Company, after founding Virginia, was sup- 



§sr- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



125 



pressed, in 1624, by James I., because he was jealous of 
its growing power and wealth. On the other hand, the 
Plymouth Company languished till it died a natural 
death, in 1635 ; but the Company of Massachusetts Bay, 
founded in 1629, at once transferred itself to New Eng- 
land, and soon became a republic aggressive and annoy- 
ing to the English kings. 

Now, after Virginia had become known as a thriving 
community, the work of planting colonies came to be 
more popular than in the days of Raleigh's unfortunate 
ventures, and private individuals again took hold of it. 
It was easy for the king to reward the services of some 
favorite officer or courtier with a grant of land in Amer- 
ica ; such grants cost the king nothing. The first per- 
son who obtained one was George Calvert, a Yorkshire 
gentleman whom James I. raised to the peerage as Lord 
Baltimore. After the 
fall of the London 
Company, of which 
he had been a mem- 
ber, Lord Baltimore 
wished to found a col- 
ony for himself. He 
was a Roman Catho- 
lic, and wished to se- 
cure for members of 
his church a place in 
America where they 
might be unmolested, 
for in England they 
were not well treated. 

First he tried Newfoundland, but the climate was too 
severe. Then, in 1629, he explored the country just 

1 After a portrait once in possession of Lord Bacon, now in the Earl of 
Verulam's gallery at Glastonbury. 




FIRST LORD BALTIMORE. 



126 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VII. 



north of the Potomac, and found it very attractive. He 
New way obtained a grant of it from Charles I., and in 
fcoionf- compliment to the queen, Henrietta Maria, it 
Maryland. was called Maryland. This was a new kind of 
grant. Lord Baltimore was made " Lord Proprietary " 
of Maryland, and received privileges the most exten- 
sive ever conferred upon a 
British subject. He was 
required to pay to the king 
two Indian arrows yearly 
in token of homage, to- 
gether with a fifth part of 
whatever gold or silver 
might be mined in Mary- 
land ; but as no precious 
metals were produced in 
the colony, this rent 
amounted to nothing. At 
such an easy cost was 
Lord Baltimore made an 




settlement of the middle colo- almost independent sover- 

NIES, 1614-64. . L 

eign. He could coin money, 
and grant titles of nobility. He could create courts, 
and appoint the judges, and pardon criminals. He could 
summon an assembly of representatives, and such laws 
as it might pass did not need to be approved by the 
king, but were in force as soon as signed by Lord Balti- 
more. Finally, his office was hereditary in his family, 
so that the lord proprietary of Maryland was very much 
like a king. 

Just before this charter was issued, George Calvert 
died, so that it was issued in the name of his son, 
Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore. Under his 
rule, the first settlement was made at St. Mary's, in 1634. 



§ 57, 5«- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



127 




In order to secure toleration for Catholics without 
offending the British government, it was neces- 

, . r , , . First set- 

sary to pursue a policy of general toleration, so tiement of 
that people of all creeds were drawn to Mary- MaryIand 
land, and the colony grew rapidly in population and 
wealth. 

58. Religious Quar- 
rels in Maryland. The 
people of Virginia were 
not pleased at seeing a 
region so near them 
granted to Lord Balti- 
more for the site of a 
rival colony. One Vir- 
ginia gentleman, Wil- 
liam Claiborne, who 
had settled on Kent 
Island, in Chesapeake 
Bay, resisted the Mary- 
land settlers with armed force. He was defeated and 
driven from Kent Island, in 1634, but he nursed his 
wrath. By 1645, a good many Puritans had come to 
Maryland, and wished to undermine the proprie- 
tary government and to molest the Catholics, and catho- 
Supported by the Puritans, Claiborne invaded 
Maryland, and for a moment overthrew the government ; 
but the loyal supporters of Lord Baltimore soon rallied 
and drove him out. Once more, in 1654, the Puritans 
and Claiborne tried their game, and were victorious in 
a battle fought near the site of Annapolis ; but Oliver 
Cromwell, after a patient examination of the case, de- 
cided that the Calverts were entitled to govern Mary- 
land, and, in 1658, their government was restored. 

1 After an engraving made in 1657, now in possession of the Maryland 
Historical Society. 



SECOND LORD BALTIMORE.l 



128 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



After this, the times were peaceful in Maryland till 
after 1676, when religious quarrels again became promi- 
nent. This time it was the Episcopal clergy who tried 
to oppress Catholics and Quakers. But they 
iia P ns C and had not much success until after the accession 
Catholics. of william an d Mary, when new laws enacted 

by Parliament against Catholics annulled the charter of 
the Calverts, and their government suddenly fell to the 
ground. From 1692 to 17 14, Maryland was ruled by 
governors appointed by the crown. The seat of govern- 
ment was transferred from St. Mary's to Annapolis. 
Taxes were levied for the support of the Church of 

England, of which only a 
small part of the population 
were members. Catholics 
were forbidden to come to 
Maryland, and the public 
celebration of the mass was 
strictly prohibited. Such 
measures caused much dis- 
content, and created a strong 
party hostile to the British 
government. At length, in 
1 714, the fourth Lord Balti- 
more turned Protestant, and 
his proprietary rights were 
revived. Maryland remained 
a sort of hereditary monarchy until 1776, when the rule 
of the sixth Lord Baltimore was ended by the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

The method of creating a new colony by a grant to a 
lord proprietary was first adopted by the crown in the 
case of Maryland. A similar method was followed in 
all the colonies afterward founded south of New Eng- 




SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. 



58, 59- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



129 



land, though there were variations in detail, and no 
other rulers came quite so near kingship as the Calverts. 

At first, the settlers of Maryland supported themselves, 
just like the settlers of Virginia, by raising tobacco on 
large plantations ; and in regard to negro slaves, mean 
whites, fewness of roads, and absence of towns and 
schools, the two colonies were almost exactly alike. But 
in the eighteenth century, the wheat crop came 
to be very large ; great quantities of wheat and Maryland 
flour were exported, and the city of Baltimore, 
founded in 1729, soon became one of the most thriving 
Atlantic seaports. With the lapse of time, Maryland 
became more and more a commercial state, and her inter- 
ests, while partly like those of Virginia, were also partly 
like those of Pennsylvania and New York. 

59. The Settlement of New Netherland by the 
Dutch. Before the Calverts had made their first settle- 




MANHATTAN ISLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.! 

ments on the Potomac, before the Mayflower had landed 
her Pilgrims at Plymouth, bold navigators and enterpris- 

1 From The Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 33. 



13° 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VII. 



ing merchants from Holland had taken 
possession of Manhattan Island, where 
the city of New York now stands. In 
the summer of 1609, the English sailor, 
Henry Hudson, then in the service 
of the Dutch East India Company, 
sailed along our coasts in his little 
ship, the Half Moon, entered the beau- 
tiful river that bears his name, and 
ascended it as far as the head of tide- 
water, at the site of Albany. A good 
many people believed that the conti- 
nent in that latitude was not much 
The Dutch wider than Central America, 
Hudson an d Hudson was looking for 
River - some strait through which he 
might sail into the Pacific Ocean. 
What he found was the river which 
gave most direct and ready access to 
the fur trade of the interior. The 
Indians had plenty of valuable furs 
which they were glad to trade for steel 
hatchets, jackknives, and cheap trin- 
kets. Dutch traders were, accordingly, 
soon drawn to Hudson's River, and 
made fortunes quickly out of the traffic 
in peltries. By 16 14, they had made 
a settlement on Manhattan Island, and 
the New Netherland Company was or- 
ganized. By 1623, the Dutch had es- 
tablished posts as far north as Albany, 
and as far south as Fort Nassau, near 
where Philadelphia now stands. They 
called the Hudson the North River, and 
the Delaware the South River, and the 



Bead of 
Tidewater 



\HUOsc 

C aWfc / 1 , 

.'■■■ kit 



Jnew 
Amsterdam 

1664 
SW Yorkgitj) 



HENRY HUDSON'S 
RIVER. 



59- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



131 



country between the two was known as New Netherland. 
In 1626, Peter Minuit, the governor of New Netherland, 
bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for about 
twenty-four dollars' worth of beads and ribbons. The 
city beginning to grow up there was called New N ew Am- 
Amsterdam, and, by 1664, it had a population sterdam - 
of 1,500 souls. It was situated entirely south of Wall 
Street, along which there ran a wooden palisaded wall. 

All creeds were tolerated, and people came from all 
parts of Europe ; it is said that as many as eighteen lan- 
guages were spoken in New Amsterdam. 

At first, it was the fur trade that interested everybody, 
and little attention 
was paid to farming. 
Accordingly, the New 
Netherland Company 
offered a prize to any 
member who should 
bring fifty permanent 
settlers into the col- 
ony. The prize was 
an estate of sixteen 
miles frontage on the 
Hudson River, and of 

depth undetermined. Between New York and Albany 
there would be room for about ten such manorial estates 
on each side of the river. The proprietors could hold 
little courts of their own, and had some other privileges 
like those of lords in Europe in the old times. The"pa- 
These proprietors were called " patroons," and troons -" 
played a very important part in the history of the colony. 

The Dutch in Holland were in many respects as free 
a people as the English, and in some respects more 
enlightened, but the colony of New Netherland had no 

1 From The Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 248- 




PALISADES ON WALL ST-REET.l 



132 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



representative assembly. The governor had a small 
council of from eight to twelve men to advise him, but 
there was no real check upon his authority, except that 
people could complain of him to the government in Hol- 
land, and beg to have him removed. The two governors 
who succeeded Minuit were men of weak head and bad 
character. The colony was grossly misgoverned, and, 
in 1643-45, was nearly ruined in a murderous war with 
the Algonquin tribes of the neighborhood. Fortunately, 
the Dutch secured the firm friendship of the Iroquois, 
who soon found that rich peltries would buy muskets 
and powder and ball to be used against other red men 
and against the French in Canada. 

The famous Peter Stuyvesant, who was sent, in 1645, 
Peter stuy- to govern New Netherland, was an arbitrary 
vesant. ru ler, but honest and much more sensible 
than his predecessors. Under his rule, the wealth 

and population of the 
colony were more than 
doubled. Stuyvesant 
had rival colonizers to 
contend with. In 1638, 
a small party of Swedes 
had taken possession of 
the mouth of the Dela- 
ware River and made a 
settlement there which 
they called New Swe- 
den ; it was the begin- 
ning of the little state of 
Delaware. The Dutch 
looked upon these Swedes as intruders, and, in 1655, Stuy- 
vesant overcame them, and annexed their territory west 

1 From The Memorial History of the City of New York, i. 243. 




PETER STUYVESANT.- 



59- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



133 



of the river to New Netherland. But it was soon the turn 
of the Dutch themselves to be swallowed up by a greater 
power. England and Holland were commercial rivals ; 
the Hudson River was the most important military- 
position on the American coast, and the most convenient 
avenue to the fur trade ; the English, therefore, had no 
mind to leave it in the hands of the Dutch. In 1664, 
King Charles II. fitted out a small fleet, under com- 
mand of Richard Nichols, and sent it over to New Am- 
sterdam, to demand the surrender of the colony. It 




THE STRAND, WHITEHALL STREET, NEW YORK, 1673.I 

was rather a cool demand to make, inasmuch as Eng- 
land was at peace with Holland ; but honor and decency 
were things about which Charles II. cared 
very little. Governor Stuyvesant was taken 
by surprise. He had only 250 soldiers where- 
with to defend the town against 1,000 English 
veterans and the ninety guns of the fleet. Resistance 
was impossible, and so the town was surrendered, and 

1 After a view in Manual of City of A T ewYork, 1869. 



Capture of 
New Am- 
sterdam by 
the Eng- 
lish. 



134 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VII. 

with it the province of New Netherland passed without 
a blow into the hands of the English. In 1673, in the 
course of a war between England and Holland, the 
Dutch got possession of the province again, but in 1674 
it was finally surrendered to the English by treaty. 

60. Early English Rule in New York. New Nether- 
land was given by King Charles to his brother James, 
Duke of York, as lord proprietary ; and the name of 
New Neth- the province, as well as that of the town on 
comes New Manhattan Island, was changed to New York. 
York. jj- remained a proprietary colony until 1685, 

when the Duke of York became king of England as 
James II. ; this made it a royal colony. Some of the 
people were glad to get rid of the Dutch rule because 
they hoped to have freely chosen representative assem- 
blies, according to the custom in the English colonies, 
but James was not the man to satisfy them in this 
respect ; he had no love for constitutional government. 
It was not until 1683 that he gave his consent to the 
election of representatives in New York. After he had 
become king, he prohibited elections, muzzled the print- 
ing press, and put New York, along with the New Eng- 
land colonies, under the arbitrary rule of Sir Edmund 
Andros. That military viceroy spent most of his time 
in Boston, and left a lieutenant-governor, Francis Nich- 
olson, to manage the affairs of New York. 

By this time, two antagonist parties had begun to grow 
up in New York. There were the aristocrats, consisting 
Parties in °f the patroons, the officials appointed by the 
New York. cr0 wn, and many of the rich merchants. They 
belonged to various churches, but among them were 
many Episcopalians. Opposed to these was the popular 
party, composed of small traders, artisans, and sailors in 
the city, and of small farmers in the country. Most of 



§60. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I35 

these people belonged to Independent or Congregational 
churches, either Dutch, French, or English. 

King James was not only a Roman Catholic himself, 
but believed in compelling other people to become Ro- 
man Catholics. The people of New York saw that he 
persecuted Presbyterians in Scotland, and they overthrow 
were afraid of being persecuted themselves. In ^ u ^ ^ 
the spring of 1689, when it became known in dxos - 
America that King James had been dethroned and had 
fled to France, the people of Boston at once deposed Sir 
Edmund Andros and threw him into prison. Nicholson 
remained in command at New York, and the aristocratic 
party prudently wished him to stay until a new governor 
should be appointed by the new king, William III. 

A great war between France and England was break- 
ing out, and it was correctly believed that Louis XIV. 
intended to take New York frrm the English. Nichol- 
son was suspected of being a Catholic, and the popular 
party hated Episcopalians almost as bitterly as they 
hated Catholics. An absurd suspicion arose that the 
aristocratic party intended to betray New York into the 
hands of the French. 

The leader of the popular party was a German named 
Jacob Leisler. He was a well-to-do merchant j acob 
and a deacon in the Dutch Reformed church, Leisler. 
with a fierce hatred for Catholics and Episcopalians. 
Jacob Milborne, 
an Englishman, 

who married s^_^ ^66t^ C/o(&£< 

Leisler's daugh- 
ter, was one of 

his chief SUp- leisler's autograph.! 

porters. In order to save the city from the supposed 

1 From Winsor's America, iii. 411. 




I36 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA Ch. VII. 

traitors, Leisler called out the militia, captured the fort, 
and drove Nicholson from the city. Afterward, Leisler, 
at the head of his troops, dispersed the council and set 
up a government of his own. The aristocratic party 
opposed these irregular proceedings, and two years of 
contention followed. Leisler grew more and more arbi- 
trary ; he imprisoned citizens of the opposite party and 
seized upon their property. By degrees his own adher- 
ents began to turn against him, while various complaints 
found their way to the ears of King William. In 1691, 
the king sent over a new governor, named Henry Slough- 
ter, with his lieutenant, Richard Ingoldsby, and a small 
force of troops. The ship which carried the governor 
was blown out of its course ; Ingoldsby, with the rest of 
the fleet, arrived in New York harbor before him, and 
summoned Leisler to surrender the city. Leisler refused 
to do so until Ingoldsby should show the written com- 
mission under which he was acting. But this could not 
be done because the paper was in the governor's ship. 
Ingoldsby landed his troops and took possession of the 
City Hall. After six weeks of bullying and threatening, 
Leisler attacked him there and killed some of the king's 
troops. The next day, Governor Sloughter arrived upon 
the scene, and Leisler, deserted by his own men, was 
taken prisoner. After a brief trial, he and his son-in-law, 
Milborne, were found guilty of treason and hanged. This 
was an act of ill judged severity. The victims were re- 
garded as martyrs by the popular party, and political 
strife in New York was for a long time greatly embit- 
tered by this dismal tragedy. 

61. Lord Bellomont and the Pirates. From this time 
forth, New York had a representative assembly and was 
governed in a constitutional manner. The governor at 
the end of the century was Lord Bellomont, an excellent 



§§ fir, 62. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I 37 

man, whose administration has ever since been remem- 
bered for his efforts to suppress piracy. With the 
growth of ocean traffic since the discovery of America, 
the seas were covered with merchant ships carrying such 
valuable cargoes as to afford a great temptation to sea 
robbers. The depredations and cruelties of the pirates 
had become unendurable ; and in order to begin sup- 
pressing them, Lord Bellomont fitted out a swift and 
powerful war-ship and put it under command of „ 

1 1 <- Captain 

William Kidd, a very able Scotch merchant Kidd, the 
and navigator, then living in New York. So pira ( 
Captain Kidd started to put down the pirates, but after 
he had been more than a year at sea, it was learned that 
he had changed his mind and become a pirate himself. 
In 1699, he was so rash as to go ashore at Boston, where 
he was at once arrested and sent to London. He was 
hanged in 1701. At one time, he seems to have hidden 
some money by bringing it on Gardiner's Island, and for 
a hundred years afterward people along the coasts of 
Long Island Sound used now and then to hunt for 
"Kidd's buried treasures." 

62. The Beginnings of New Jersey. The province 
of New Netherland comprised (1) the valley of the Hud- 
son from the mouth of that river as far up as Albany ; 
(2) the country lying between the Hudson and Delaware 
rivers, or, as they were commonly called, the North and 
South rivers. In 1664, after the English conquest *of 
New Netherland, the Duke of York sold out the southern 
portion of it to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret to 
hold as lords proprietary. Carteret had won some dis- 
tinction as governor of the little island of Jersey „ . . 

,. _ J Beginnings 

in the English Channel, and in honor of him, of New 

the new province came to be called New Jer- 

sey. Carteret's settlements were made in the east, about 



138 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VII. 



Newark, while Berkeley's share in the territory lay to the 
southwest, where Burlington and Trenton stand. After 
a few years, Berkeley sold his share to a party of Quakers, 
and the two provinces of East and West Jersey were 
organized. The proprietary government was much dis- 
liked by the settlers, and, in 1702, the two Jerseys were 
united into one province and placed under the direct rule 
of the crown. 

63. The Founding of Pennsylvania. The settlement 
of West Jersey by Quakers led to the founding of Penn- 




WILLIAM PENN.l 

sylvania. William Penn, the famous Quaker, was the son 
of a distinguished admiral, and both his father and himself 
were always on terms of peculiar friendship and intimacy 
with the royal family. Penn became interested in the 

1 At the age of twenty-two. From a portrait painted in 1666, given to 
the Pennsylvania Historical Society in 1833 by Granville Penn. 



§63- 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



139 



emigration of Quakers to New Jersey, and presently took 
it into his head to found a Quaker colony according to his 
own ideas. He inherited the claim to a debt of ;£ 16,000 
due from the crown to his father ; and King Charles 
II., who never had much ready money for paying his 
debts, was glad to settle this account by a grant of wild 
land in America. Accordingly, in 168 1, Penn 

1 r Beginnings 

obtained a grant of 40,000 square miles of ter- of Penn- 
ritory lying west of the Delaware River. In sy vama " 
commemoration of Penn's father, the king gave to this 
princely domain the name Pennsylvania, or " Penn's 
Woodland." The charter 
made William Penn lord 
proprietary of Pennsyl- 
vania. It was drawn up 
in imitation of Lord Bal- 
timore's charter, but did 
not confer quite such ex- 
tensive powers. The prin- 
cipal differences were 
two : (1) Laws passed by 
the assembly of Maryland 
were valid as soon as ap- 
proved by Lord Baltimore, 
and did not even need to 
be seen by the king or 
his privy council ; but the 
colonial enactments of 

Pennsylvania were required to be sent to England for 
the royal approval. (2) In the Maryland charter the 
right of the British government to impose taxes within 
the limits of the province was expressly denied ; in the 
Pennsylvania charter it was expressly affirmed. 

1 Reduced from a facsimile in Smith and Watson's American Historical 
and Literary Curiosities. 




AUTOGRAPH SIGNATURE TO PENN'S 
FRAME OF GOVERNMENT. 1 



I4O COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VIL 

In 1682, Penn came over to America; a good many 
of his settlers had come already. Soon after his arrival, 
Penn's a legislative assembly was chosen, and a consti- 
govern-° f tution, or " frame of government," was adopted. 
ment.» it wa s more democratic than that of Maryland. 
In the older colony, nearly all the magistrates were 
appointed by Lord Baltimore ; in Pennsylvania nearly all 
were elected by the people. Penn's colony was founded 
on very liberal principles for those times. No one could 
be molested for his opinions on matters of religion. The 
laws were extremely humane, and land was offered to 
immigrants on very easy terms. 

In 1683, Penn laid out a city which he called Philadel- 
phia, or " Brotherly Love," after a Greek city 
of Phila- in Asia Minor, mentioned in the New Testa- 
e p ia ' ment. It was laid out in large squares, and the 
first streets were named from trees that grew on the 
spot, — Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce, Pine, etc. The first 
houses were of wood, but, by 1690, they were usually 

built of brick or 
stone. By 1685, 
the town had 
2,000 inhabit- 

PENN'S WAMPUM.* ' 

ants, and the 
population of the colony was nearly 8,000, of whom not 
more than half were English ; the rest were chiefly Ger- 

1 Soon after his arrival in America, Penn made a treaty with the Dela- 
ware Indians under an elm-tree at a place called Shackamaxon, on the 
bank of the Delaware River. It was customary on such occasions for 
the parties making the treaty to exchange belts of wampum. The wam- 
pum belt shown above is said to have been given to William Penn by the 
Indians at Shackamaxon. It consists of eighteen strings of black and 
white beads. The figures in the centre are supposed to represent an 
Indian and a European with hands joined in friendship. It was presented 
by one of Penn's descendants to the Pennsylvania Historical Society, in 
whose collections it may now be seen. 




§6 3 - 



THE MIDDLE ZONE. 



HI 



mans and Scotch-Irish, with a considerable number of 
Swedes, Welsh, and French. It was not long before 
Pennsylvania had outgrown all the other colonies except 
Massachusetts and Virginia. 




penn's slate-roof HOUSE. 1 



Of all the colonies, this was the only one that had no 
seacoast, and as Penn wanted free access to - 

Penn 

the ocean, he secured from the Duke of York obtains 
the proprietorship of Delaware, which, ever 
since its conquest by Stuyvesant, had formed a part of 
New Netherland. Until the United States became inde- 
pendent, Pennsylvania and Delaware continued under the 
same proprietaiy government, though, after 1702, they 
were distinct provinces, each with its own legislature. 

1 William Penn lived in this house in 1699-1701. It stood on Second 
Street, between Chestnut and Walnut, at the southeast corner of Norris's 
Alley. Here his son, John Penn, was born. The house was pulled down 
in 1868. 



142 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIL 



The proprietor- 
ship of Pennsyl- 
vania was heredi- 
tary in the Penn 
family, as that of 
Maryland was he- 
reditary with the 
Calverts. Quar- 
rels sometimes 
arose between the 
two neighbors con- 
cerning the boun- 
dary line between 
them. In 1763-67, 

the line Was final- 
Mason and iy estab - 

Dixon's line. H s hed by 

two surveyors, 
Charles Mason 
and Jeremiah Dix- 
on ; and long after- 
ward, when negro 
slavery had been 
abolished in the 
northern states, " Mason and Dixon's line " became fa- 
mous as the dividing line between free soil and slave soil. 




THE MIDDLE COLONIES, 169O. 



topics and questions. 
57. The Founding of Maryland. 

1. The three zones again. 

2. The planting of colonies thus far. 

3. A new way of founding colonies. 

4. Something about the first Lord Baltimore. 

5. The extraordinary privileges granted Lord Baltimore, 

6. The second Lord Baltimore. 

7. Toleration in Maryland. 



Ch. VII. THE MIDDLE ZONE. I43 

58. Religious Quarrels in Maryland. 

1. Virginia's attitude toward Maryland. 

2. Claiborne's war against Maryland. 

3. Cromwell's decision about the rightful rulers. 

4. Who began to oppress the Catholics after 1676 ? 

5. What measures of oppression were adopted ? 

6. What was the outcome of such measures ? 

7. Tell about the business of the colony. 

59. The Settlement of New Netherland by the Dutch. 

1. When and by whom was the Hudson River discov- 

ered ? 

2. What was Hudson looking for ? 

3. How did a Dutch trade spring up? 

4. What early Dutch settlements were made? 

5. What country was called New Netherland ? 

6. Tell about New Amsterdam. 

7. Tell about the estates of the patroons, and how there came 

to be such estates. 

8. Describe the government of New Netherland. 

9. What did the Dutch have to do with the Indians ? 

10. Tell about Stuyvesant and the Swedes. 

11. How did the English come into possession of New Nether- 

land finally ? 

60. Early English Rule in New York. 

1. How came New Netherland to be called New York? 

2. How did it become a royal colony ? 

3. Why were some people glad to get rid of Dutch rule ? 

4. What harsh measures did James adopt when he became 

king? 

5. What opposing parties grew up in New York ? 

6. What events in New York followed the overthrow of King 

James ? 

7. What was the suspicion of the popular party ? 

8. What measures did the popular party under Leisler adopt 

to save the city ? 

9. Show how Leisler provoked opposition to himself. 

10. Tell how the new governor overthrew Leisler. 

1 1 . What was the fate of Leisler ? 

61. Lord Bellomont and the Pirates. 

1. What led to the prevalence of piracy? 

2. What was Captain Kidd commissioned to do ? 



144 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VII, 



3. What did he really do ? 

4. Explain his buried treasures. 

62. The Beginnings of New Jersey. 

1. What did New Netherland comprise ? 

2. What part did the Duke of York sell, and to whom? 

3. How came the new province to receive its name ? 

4. How came there to be two Jerseys? 

5. When and why were they united ? 

63. The Founding of Pennsylvania. 

1. Who was William Penn? 

2. How came Penn to be a landowner in America? 

3. What was his domain ? 

4. In what two respects did Penn have less power than Lord 

Baltimore ? 

5. How was Penn's government more democratic than that of 

Maryland ? 

6. What liberal policy did Penn's government adopt ? 

7. Give an account of early Philadelphia, speaking (a) of its 

name, {b) of its plan, (c) of its streets, and (d) of its 
population and growth. 

8. How did Penn secure a reach of seacoast ? 

9. What tie united Pennsylvania and Delaware ? 

10. What was the object of " Mason and Dixon's line"? 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. What is a joint-stock company or partnership? What joint- 

stock companies engaged in colonizing America ? How did 
they make money, or expect to make it ? 

2. Show how grants of land in America by English sovereigns 

cost them nothing. What change of view about the owner- 
ship of public lands by English sovereigns has taken place 
since colonial times ? 

3. Why have so many people come to America to live, and so few 

left it to live elsewhere ? 

4. Mention some colony that was early tolerant from principle, 

some colony tolerant for self-protection, and some colony 
forced to become tolerant by a change in public opinion. 

5. What three religious sects studiously refrained from persecu- 

tion in colonial times ? 

6. What is a state church ? Show how the Church of England is 

a state church. What burden does such a church lay upon 



Ch. VII. THE MIDDLE ZONE. 145 

the public ? Mention some colony that has had experience 
with such a church. What is the objection to levying taxes 
to support such a church ? Is there any greater objection to 
taxing one for a church he does not believe in than in taxing 
him for a road he does not believe in ? Reason. 

7. Why is the word " New " used in connection with the names of 

so many American places, as New York, New Jersey, etc. ? 

8. Why was Manhattan Island so cheap in 1626? (See pages 130, 

131.) Why is it so dear to-day ? 

9. What is meant by saying that property or position is hereditary ? 

In what countries is the right to govern hereditary? In 
what countries is this hereditary right denied ? What right 
is opposed to it ? Is there any right hereditary in the United 
States to-day ? 

10. What are the five degrees of British nobility? Has there ever 

been a colonial nobility ? What has the Constitution of the 
United States to say about titles of nobility? 

1 1 . What three great cities have grown up in the middle zone ? 

Tell when each was founded, and by whom. Give some rea- 
son why each has grown so rapidly. 

12. Trace Penn's seacoast on the map. Trace "Mason and 

Dixon's line." Was that line long enough really to separate 
all the slave soil from the free ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Cooke's Virginia, in the series of "American Common- 
wealths : " 

1. Hew Lord Baltimore was treated in Virginia, 176, 177. 

2. Claiborne's claim to Maryland, 178, 179. 

3. His persistent struggle for Maryland, 180, 181. 

4. The battle of the Severn, 208-216. 

In much that relates to the fur-bearing animals, to the importance 
of the fur trade, to the debasing brandy traffic, and to the wild life 
of those who went among the Indians to buy and sell, Parkman's 
graphic descriptions in his Old Regime in Canada hold as good of 
the Dutch and the English as of the French. 

1. The French fur trade, 302-309. 

2. The coureurs de bois, or bush-rangers, 309-315. 

3. The brandy traffic, 322-328. 

In his yesuits in North America, Parkman gives a most readable 
account of the Indians east of the Mississippi, particularly of their 



I46 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VII. 

ablest tribes, the Indians of New York. Interesting side glimpses 
are given in the same work of the old Dutch life and spirit, espe- 
cially in the chapter on the thrilling experiences of a devoted 
French missionary among the Mohawks. 

1. The dreaded Iroquois, liii-lxvi. 

2. How the Dutch supplied the Indians with firearms, 211, 212. 

3. The romantic story of Isaac Jogues, 213-238, 296-305. 

4. The Dutch settlement at Fort Orange (Albany), 229, 230. 

5. How the Dutch befriended Jogues, 231-234. 

6. A glimpse of old Manhattan, 235, 236. 

In the opening chapters of his Conspiracy of Pontiac, Parkman 
again, in fresh and varied language, describes the Indians east of 
the Mississippi, and especially the fierce Iroquois, sharply contrast- 
ing their treatment by the French with their treatment by the 
English, and pointing out the far-reaching consequences of these 
differences of policy. 

1. The peculiar totems of the Iroquois, i. 4, 5, 10. 

2. Strange Iroquois legends, i. 12-15. 

3. Dwellings and daily life of the Iroquois, i. 16-20. 

4. The terrible conquests of the Iroquois, i. 22-27. 

5. The widely-spread Algonquins, i. 28-39. 

6. The kind of man the wild Indian really is, i. 39-45 . 

7. French and English settlers contrasted, i. 46-64. 

8. French and English treatment of the Indians contrasted, 

i. 65-80. 

9. The Quakers and the Indians, i. 80-83. 

10. The Quakers' walking purchase, i. 84-86. 

11. English fur traders, i. 71, 72, 79, 153-160. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE FAR SOUTH. 1660-1752. 

64. The Carolinas. After his restoration to the throne, 
in 1660, Charles II. had several friends whom he wished 
to reward for important services. Chief among these 
were George Monk, Duke of Albemarle, and Edward 
Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. To these and six other gentle- 
men, the king, in 1663, granted the territory between 
Virginia and Florida. The charter created a proprietary 
form of government somewhat similar to that of Mary- 
land, except that the proprietorship was vested in a com- 
pany of eight persons instead of in a single person. 
The country had been visited a hundred years before by 
the unfortunate Jean Ribault, and had thus come to be 
called Carolina, after Charles IX., of France ; the name 
served equally well now that another King Charles was 
to be commemorated. An elaborate constitution for the 
proposed colony was drawn up by the great philosopher, 
John Locke, but it was never put into practice. 

There was no intention of making two distinct colo- 
nies, but the earliest settlements were made at points so 
far apart, and under such different circumstances, that 
distinct governments grew up naturally. The first per- 
manent settlements in North Carolina were north of Al- 
bemarle Sound and near the Virginia border ; The two 
the first permanent settlements in South Caro- Carohnas - 
lina were about Charleston. Sometimes the two colonies 
had separate governors, sometimes one governor ruled 



148 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIIL 



them both. The lords proprietary seemed to have cared 
little for the colonies except as sources of income, and 

their rule was very- 
unpopular. For 
many years there 
were frequent 
complaints and 
disorders. At 

length, in 1 729, 
the lords proprie- 
tary turned over 
the government to 
the crown, and the 
two Carolinas be- 
came distinct and 
separate royal 
provinces. 

65. The Begin- 
nings of North 
Carolina. Among 
the people who 
first pressed 

through the wil- 
derness from Vir- 
ginia and made 
the beginnings of North Carolina, there were many 
rough characters for whom life in Virginia was not wild 
enough. There were also white freedmen who could 
not hope to rise to social equality with the Virginia 
planters ; these people obtained small farms in North 
Carolina, with negro slaves to cultivate them. There 
were also Quakers and other Dissenters who fled from 
Virginia to escape persecution. In 1707, there came a 
large company of Huguenots driven from France; and, 




SETTLEMENTS IN THE FAR SOUTH. 



§§65,66. THE FAR SOUTH. 149 

in 1709, there came a still greater number of Germans 
from the Palatinate, led by the Baron de Graffenried. 
He was a native of Bern, in Switzerland, and the first 
town founded by his company was called New Bern. 

North Carolina was then inhabited by a powerful tribe 
of Iroquois Indians called Tuscaroras. These red men 
did not relish the sight of such a steadily increasing 
throng of white people coming to take possession of 
their forests. So they made war upon the TheTus- 
settlers, and began it, after their well-known carora war ' 
fashion, by capturing John Lawson, the surveyor general 
of the colony, and burning him to death. Then they 
attacked the farms of the white men and massacred 
many families. This was in 171 1. After two dreadful 
years of war, the Tuscaroras were completely put down ; 
the remnant of the tribe, in 171 5, migrated to central 
New York and joined the league of their kinsmen in the 
Mohawk Valley. 

After 1730, great numbers of Scotch-Irish came to 
North Carolina and settled chiefly in the western coun- 
ties ; and, after 1745, there came many Scotch High- 
landers. Population grew so fast that by the time of 
the Revolution, North Carolina ranked fourth among 
the thirteen colonies. It was almost entirely a popula- 
tion of small farmers. Much tobacco was raised, and 
the splendid forests of yellow pine yielded lumber, tar, 
and turpentine. 

66. The Beginnings of South Carolina. The first 
settlers of South Carolina, in 1670, were Englishmen 
sent out by the lords proprietary. After 1685, Hugue- 
nots came from France in large numbers. Some years 
later came Germans, then a great many Scotch-Irish, 
and then a few Scotch Highlanders. The races inhabit- 
ing the two Carolinas are, therefore, pretty much the 



ISO 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIIL 



same, though mingled in different proportions. But 
society was very different in the two. The South Caro- 
lina planters grew rich by cultivating rice and indigo on 
large estates. All labor was performed by negro slaves, 
who were brought over from Africa in such numbers 

that before the Revolu- 
tion there were at least 
twice as many black men 
as white men in the col- 
ony. The work on the 
rice and indigo planta- 
tions was directed by 
overseers. As a rule, the 
rich planters had com- 
fortable and handsome 
houses in Charleston, and 
life in that town, with 
its theatre, balls, and din- 
ner parties, was quite gay. 
67. The Beginnings of 
Georgia. The rapid growth 
of the Carolinas was not regarded with favor by the Span- 
iards in Florida. They kept stirring up the Indians to 
warfare, until, in 171 5, a great force of Yemassees, Chero- 
kees, and Catawbas, numbering nearly 7,000 warriors, 
invaded South Carolina. After they had slaughtered 
four or five hundred settlers, they were routed 
Ogie e - s by Governor Craven in an obstinate battle, and 
theTettfeT* driven from tne province. But they kept up 
their depredations on the frontier. At length, 
a brave English soldier, James Oglethorpe, 
conceived the idea of planting a colony which should 
serve as a strong military outpost against the Spaniards 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 362. 




OGLETHORPE. 1 



ment of 
Georgia. 



§6 7 . 



THE FAR SOUTH. 



151 



and Indians. In those days it was customary to put in- 
solvent debtors into prison, where they were liable to 
spend a great part of their lives. Oglethorpe's plan was 
to release these unfortunate people and take them to 
America. In 1732, he obtained from George II. a grant 
of land "in trust for the poor." It was named Georgia, 
after the king. 

Oglethorpe came over in 1733, and founded the town 
of Savannah. His company of English settlers was 
reinforced by Germans and Scotch Highlanders. The 




SAVANNAH IN 174I.I 

country near the coast was soon dotted with planta- 
tions of rice and indigo, and there was a brisk trade in 
lumber. In 1739, war broke out between Spain and 
England, and presently Oglethorpe invaded Florida and 
laid siege to St. Augustine, but failed to take The Span- 
that town. In 1742, the Spaniards invaded lsh war ' 
Georgia and were totally defeated in a battle at Fred- 
erica. The next year, Oglethorpe again. laid siege to St. 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 368. 



152 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. VIII. 

Augustine ; and, although he did not take it, the Span- 
iards did not again resume the offensive. Soon after- 
ward, Oglethorpe returned to England. The government 
of the trustees was unpopular, partly because they under- 
took to prohibit the importation of rum and of negro 
slaves. In 1752, the province was surrendered to the 
crown, and remained under a royal governor until the 
Revolution. 

We have now seen how thirteen English colonies came 
to be planted in North America. We had before seen 
how the French, under Samuel de Champlain, had 
founded a colony upon the river St. Lawrence. We 
have next to describe the further progress of the French, 
and see how they struggled with the English for suprem- 
acy, and how, at length, the English colonists, aided by 
troops from England, were completely victorious, and 
took away from France all her possessions in America. 

topics and questions. 

64. The Carolinas. 

1. By whom was Carolina granted, and to whom? 

2. What reason led to the grant ? 

3. How came the territory to- receive its name? 

4. Tell how two colonies sprang up when one was intended. 

5. When did the Carolinas become royal provinces, and why ? 

65. The Beginnings of North Carolina. 

1. What sorts of people early made their homes in North 

Carolina ? 

2. What Indians were disturbed by their coming, and why? 

3. What was the result of the war that ensued ? 

4. What settlers flowed in after this war ? 

5. Tell about the farms and industries of the settlers. 

66. The Beginnings of South Carolina. 

1. The classes of early settlers. 

2. How they compared with those of North Carolina. 

3. How they became well-to-do. 

4. The effect of their wealth on their mode of living. 



Ch. VIII. THE FAR SOUTH. I 53 

67. The Beginnings of Georgia. 

1. How the Florida Spaniards viewed the growth of the Caro- 

linas. 

2. The means they took to check this growth. 

3. The result of the war. 

4. Oglethorpe's plan of defense against the Spaniards and 

Indians. 

5. His grant and the name given to it. 

6. The founding of Savannah. 

7. How Georgia at length fell to the crown. 

suggestive questions and directions. 

1. Why is Ribault described in the text as unfortunate? 

2. What bodies of people were known as Dissenters, and why? 

Why is the name still used in England, but not in the United 
States? 

3. Who were the Huguenots? Why did many of them come to 

this country ? Why did they not settle in those regions of 
the new world claimed by France ? 

4. Where and what was the Palatinate ? Why did Germans come 

over from the Palatinate ? 

5. Where was the home of the Scotch-Irish? What made them 

uncomfortable at home and ready to emigrate ? 

6. In general, what conditions in the old world made so many 

people dissatisfied there, and what conditions in the new 
world drew so many to its shores ? 

7. What were some of Oglethorpe's high aims ? What is an insol- 

vent debtor? Show how he fares better to-day than two 
centuries ago. What two things did Oglethorpe seek to do 
through his use of such debtors ? Why was his opposition 
to the importation of rum and slaves unpopular ? 

8. What colonies were granted charters when they were founded ? 

What were made proprietary? What were organized as 
royal provinces ? What was the characteristic thing in each 
of these three kinds of government ? 

9. Make out a table of the thirteen colonies in accordance with the 

following plan : 



154 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. VIIL 



COLONIES. 


FIRST SETTLED 
WHEN ? 


WHERE ? 


BY WHOM? 


ORIGINAL GOVERN- 
MENT. 













10. 



II. 



12. 



To what country or countries do you trace your ancestry? 
What is meant by pride of birth or pride of family ? Why 
do people like to claim relationship with, or descent from, 
the illustrious? 

In what sense are all Americans foreigners? What is it for 
the foreigner to become Americanized ? What are the signs 
that the process is complete ? What are some of the means 
of hastening the process? Ought the foreigner to learn 
English ? Ought he to become a citizen ? What old-world 
things ought he to abandon ? What old-world things is it; 
proper for him to cling to ? 

What nationalities do not assimilate with the American? Is it 
good policy to keep out of this country any civilization in- 
ferior to ours, and that shows no signs of becoming like 
ours? Ought immigration to be discouraged ? Ought it to 
be restricted ? 



TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Selected from Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, vol. i. : 
i. French claims on the American continent, 20-25. 

2. An estimate of the thirteen British colonies : 

a. Massachusetts the type of the New England colonies, 

26-28. 

b. Virginia in contrast with Massachusetts, 29-31. 

c. Pennsylvania different from both, 31, 32. 

d. New York with its Dutch coloring, 32, 33. 

e. The remaining colonies, 33. 

f. Their mutual jealousies and internal disputes, 33-35. 

3. The combatants in the coming struggle : 

a. The England of the eighteenth century, 5-9. 

b. The France of Louis XV., 9-16. 



CHAPTER IX. 

OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 1689-1763. 

68. The Mississippi Valley Claimed for France by 
La Salle. Interest in the fur trade combined with mis- 
sionary zeal to draw the French explorers farther and 
farther into the interior of the North American conti- 
nent. In Champlain's time, a Jesuit mission had already 
been established among the Huron Indians, and it was 
destroyed, in 1649, by the terrible Iroquois. Before 1670, 
the French were exploring Wisconsin, and had French ex . 

made settlements at Sault Sainte Marie, at the P lore . rs and 

mission- 
entrance of Lake Superior, and at Saint Esprit, anes in the 

on the southern shore of that lake. If you look 
at a map of Wisconsin and its neighbor states, you will 
notice many French names, such as Eau Claire, Lac Qui 
Parle, Prairie du Chien, and others, preserving the recol- 
lection of the time when no white men but Frenchmen 
had set foot in that part of the country. 

In 1673, Marquette and Joliet discovered the northern 
part of the Mississippi, and descended that „. 

* . t rr Discovery 

great river in boats about as far as the mouth of the Mis- 
of the Arkansas. Six years afterward, the 
work of exploring the Mississippi valley was taken up 
by Robert de La Salle, one of the bravest and most sa- 
gacious explorers that ever lived. He had already made 
an expedition, in 1669, in which he discovered the Ohio 
and Illinois rivers. In 1679, he launched in the Niagara 
River the first vessel ever seen on the Great Lakes, 



156 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



La Salle 
and the 
Griffin. 



the Griffin, of forty-five tons burthen. He passed through 
the lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan, and sent 
back the vessel for further supplies, while he 
pushed on to the Illinois, and built a small fort 
there, which soon received the name of Crevecoeur, or 
"Heartbreak." The Griffin was never heard from, and 
in March, 1680, La Salle started, with four Frenchmen 




LA SALLE. 1 

and one Indian guide, and they made their way, partly 
by canoes, partly on foot, through a thousand miles of 
tangled wilderness to Montreal. After obtaining fresh 
supplies, he made his way back to the Illinois River, 

1 This follows a design given in Gravier, which is said to be based on 
an engraving preserved in the Bibliotheque de Rouen. 



§68. 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



157 



meeting strange adventures on the way. Part of the 
garrison left in Fort Crevecoeur had mutinied and pulled 
the fort to pieces ; reinforced by other knaves, they 
cruised on Lake Ontario in canoes, in the hope of kill- 




NORTHERN PART OF NEW FRANCE. 



ing La Salle and plundering his party, but La Salle de- 
feated them and sent them in chains to the governor of 
Canada for punishment. The remainder of the garrison 
at Crevecoeur, with their noble young leader, Henri de 
Tonty, whom La Salle had left in charge, took refuge 
among the Illinois tribe of Indians ; in the course of the 
summer, the great village of the Illinois was destroyed 
by the Iroquois, and the little band of Frenchmen re- 
treated to Green Bay on Lake Michigan. So when La 
Salle reached the Illinois country, he found his friends 
all gone. He spent the winter making alliances with the 
western tribes, and in the next summer, after finding 
his friend Tonty on Lake Michigan, the two returned in 
canoes to Montreal to obtain fresh resources. 

La Salle suffered from want of money, and it was very 
discouraging that a ship from France, bringing many 



i 5 8 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



La Salle's 
third at- 
tempt to 
explore the 
Missis- 
sippi. 



thousand dollars for his use, should have been wrecked 
and all the money lost. On his second return to Mon- 
treal without achieving anything, ill disposed people ridi- 
culed him. But the evil fates had grown tired of fight- 
ing against such a man, and his third attempt 
was crowned with success. With a fleet of 
canoes he ascended lakes Erie, Huron, and 
Michigan, and the Chicago River, then marched 
through the woods across the portage, or 
carrying place, from the Chicago to the Illinois ; then 
launched the canoes again on the latter river, and 

thence, coming out 
upon the Missis- 
sippi, glided down 
to its mouth. On 
the 9th of April, 
1682, the banner 
of France was 
planted there, and 
La Salle took pos- 
session of the great 
river and its country in the name of Louis XIV., King 
of France, after whom he called the country Louisiana. 

That name Louisiana is now restricted to the state 
through which the Mississippi River in its lowest portion 
flows into the Gulf of Mexico. When first given by La 
Salle it had a much wider meaning. The French main- 
tained that to discover a river establishes a claim to all 
the territory drained by that river and by its tributaries. 
Now, nearly all the rain that falls in the United States, 
from the crest of the Alleghanies all the way to the crest 
of the Rocky Mountains (except what runs into the Great 
Lakes), is drained off through the Mississippi River. La 
Salle knew nothing about the regions west of that river, 




NEW FRANCE. 



§§68,69. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 159 

but the name Louisiana covered the country from the 
Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. 

The water that runs into the Great Lakes is drained 
off through the St. Lawrence, of which the French had 
already taken possession. As Champlain was the founder 
of New France with his Canadian colony, so La Salle 
gave to New France its widest extension with his acqui- 
sition of Louisiana. Compared with this enormous 
stretch of territory, the strip of English colonies along 
the Atlantic coast would seem very narrow. 

But La Salle well knew that to make other nations 
respect the claims of discoverers, it is necessary for the 
discoverers to take armed possession of the ter- „ 

r- Efforts to 

ntory claimed. So he returned to France, and take armed 
fitted out an expedition to come by sea and of'Louisi'- 11 
found a colony at the mouth of the Missis- ana " 
sippi. But his pilots missed the entrance to the river 
and landed four hundred miles to the west of it, at Mata- 
gorda Bay. After two years of misery, the indomitable 
La Salle started on foot in the hope of making his way 
to Canada and finding relief, but he had scarcely set 
out with this forlorn hope when two or three mutinous 
wretches of his party skulked in ambush and shot him 
dead. 

69. The Outbreak of "War between France and Eng- 
land. Not content with possessing the broad valleys of 
the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, the French now 
cherished an intention of conquering the valley of the 
Hudson, thus cutting off the English from any approach 
to the Great Lakes, and from any share in the rich fur 
trade of the northwestern forests. The breaking out of 
war in Europe seemed to afford them an opportunity 
for doing this. 

The power of France under Louis XIV. was becom- 




l60 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

ing so great as to alarm the rest of Europe, and William 
of Orange, Stadholder 1 of the Netherlands, was at the 
William of head of an armed league for the purpose of re- 
Orange. sisting the French. James II., king of Eng- 
land, was uncle to William of Orange, and also his father- 
in-law, for William had married James's eldest daughter, 
Mary. In the winter of 1688-89, there was a Revolution 
in England. The tyrannical James II. was driven from 

the throne and fled to 
France, where he obtained 
sympathy and aid from 
Louis XIV. The people 
of England invited William 

AUTOGRAPH OF LOUIS XIV. ° 

and Mary across the chan- 
nel and made them king and queen. So now the Euro- 
pean struggle took the form of a great war between 
Louis XIV., king of France, and William III., king of 
Great Britain and Ireland. This meant war between 
Frenchmen and Englishmen in America as well as in 
Europe. 

The year 1689 is one of the most important dates in 
American history, and ought by all means to be remem- 
1689 an im- bered. It marks the end of " early American 
§£££' history," properly so called. By 1689, all the 
history. English colonies had been founded except 
Georgia. Some of them, such as Pennsylvania and the 
two Carolinas, were still very young colonies, whose 
adult inhabitants had nearly all been born in Europe ; 
in others, such as Massachusetts and Virginia, the grand- 
sons of the first settlers had grown to manhood. By 
1689, the work of La Salle had given to the French do- 
minion its widest extent. In 1689, began the long strug- 

1 In the old Dutch Republic, the chief executive officer, or president, 
was called the Stadholder. The word is often wrongly spelled Stadtholder 



§§69, 7°- OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. l6l 

gle between the French and the English, to determine 
which people should be masters of North America. In 
1689, began the middle epoch in American history that 
extended to 1789. Of this period of just one hundred 
years, the first seventy-four, up to 1763, were occupied 
with the struggle between the French and the English ; 
the last twenty-six, from 1763 to 1789, were taken up 
with the separation of the thirteen English colonies from 
Great Britain, and their organization into a federal na- 
tion, the United States of America. 

Let us remember that the Early Period of American 
History ends with the breaking out of war between 
France and England, in 1689. We have now to enter 
upon the Middle Period, one hundred years in duration, 
which followed. 

70. The Blows of Frontenac. In 1689, Louis XIV. 
sent Count Frontenac to be governor of Canada. Fron- 
tenac was an old 
man of wonder- 
ful energy and 

Vivacity J though autograph of frontenac. 

nearly seventy 

years of age, he was as gay and spirited as a youth fresh 
from school. He had been governor of Canada before, 
and exercised remarkable tact with the red men ; friendly 
Indians adored him, hostile Indians were terribly afraid 
of him. He would smear his face with war paint, and 
caper about in the war dance, brandishing a tomahawk 
over his head. When the time came for striking, his 
blows were apt to be heavy. He now came over to 
Canada with orders to conquer New York. He Fronte- 
expected to raise 1,600 men at Montreal and " a cap?ure 
take them down the Hudson River. It was New York, 
the time when the city of New York was distracted by 



(fJ : 7V?vf&?za$, 



1 62 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

the usurpation of Jacob Leisler, and the danger was 
great. But New York was saved for the English by their 
powerful allies, the Five Nations. These Indians had 
already begun war upon Canada, and cut off the fur trade. 
In the summer of 1689, they laid siege to Montreal, and 
roasted and devoured their French captives in full sight 
of that terror-stricken town. So when Frontenac ar- 
rived, he had his hands full with defending Canada, 
and was obliged to defer the plan of conquering New 
York. 

His great scheme dwindled into a frontier raid. In 

February, 1690, a small party of French and Indians, 

t sent out by Frontenac, surprised the village of 

Massacre at J ' r °. 

Schenec- Schenectady at midnight and massacred sixty 
inhabitants. A few of the people escaped in 
their night-clothes, and found refuge in Albany, half dead 
after their dreadful tramp through the snow. The leader 
of this expedition was a young French Canadian of noble 
birth, named Iberville. 

About a month later, another of Frontenac' s war par- 
ties laid waste the village of Salmon Falls, in New 
,. Hampshire: and shortly after, Fort Loyal, 

Massacres . J 

in New standing where now is the foot of India Street 
in the city of Portland, met with similar treat- 
ment. Such horrible scenes were repeated from year to 
year, and often the frightened people of the exposed 
villages were obliged to flee to their blockhouses for de- 
fense. In 1692, one third of the inhabitants of York, in 
Maine, were massacred ; and, in 1694, more than a hun- 
dred people, mostly women and children, were slaugh- 
tered at Durham, in New Hampshire ; many of these 
unhappy victims were burned alive. Then Groton, in 
Massachusetts, was attacked, and forty people killed. 
Of these Indian assaults, that of Haverhill, in 1697, was 



§ 7°- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



163 



perhaps the most famous, on account of the bold exploit 
of Hannah Dustin, a farmer's wife. 

Mr. Dustin was at work in a field, with his seven chil- 
dren playing about him, when all at once he heard the 




NEW ENGLAND BLOCKHOUSE.! 

dreadful war whoop. Seizing his gun and leaping upon 
his horse, he discovered that the Indians were between 
him and the house, so that it was impossible to story of 
rescue his wife. So he told his children to run f e M r r s avery 
on before him, while he fired back upon the In- Dustin. 
dians and kept them at a distance, and in such wise they 
arrived safely at the nearest fortified house. Meanwhile, 
in Mr. Dustin's house an Indian had seized the baby by 
one of its ankles, and taking it outdoors, swung it against 

1 Such strongholds were usually built in or near the New England vil- 
lages, in early times, for protection against Indian attacks. The projecting 
upper story afforded an advantage in firing down at assailants or in throw- 
ing down stones upon them. The blockhouse shown above was built 
in 1754, near the junction of the Kennebec and Sebasticook rivers, in 
Maine. The sketch was made by Justin Winsor in 1852, and is engraved 
in his America, v. 185. 



164 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

a tree and dashed out its brains. The savages took Mrs. 
Dustin and a neighbor, named Mary Neff, and started 
off for Canada. Among the captives in the party was 
an English boy who understood the Algonquin language, 
and he learned that at the end of their journey the pris- 
oners were to be tortured. When he told this to Mrs. 
Dustin she resolved upon a bold stroke. They were in 
charge of a party of nine male Indians and three squaws. 
One night, when the savages were sound asleep by their 
camp fire in the New Hampshire woods, Mrs. Dustin, 
Mary Neff, and the boy arose very quietly and took each 
a tomahawk, and with swift and well aimed blows crushed 
in the skulls of ten of their sleeping enemies. One 
young boy and one squaw got away. Mrs. Dustin 
scalped the dead men, and the three companions made 
their way more than a hundred miles through the forest, 
and arrived at Haverhill half dead with hunger and fa- 
tigue. A bounty of ^50 was paid for the ten scalps, 
and Mrs. Dustin' s fame spread so far that the governor 
of Maryland sent her a present. 

The people of New England did not sit quiet while the 
French were thus sending tomahawks and firebrands 
Attempts against them. In 1690, a force of 2,000 Massa- 
SuSand chusetts militia, led by Sir William Phips, sailed 
Montreal. U p the St. Lawrence and laid siege to Quebec ; 
while another force of New York and Connecticut troops, 
under Fitz-John Winthrop, started from Albany to ad- 
vance upon Montreal. But these amateur generals were 
no match for Frontenac, and both expeditions were un- 
successful. 1 

1 It was about this gloomy time that the witchcraft delusion prevailed 
in Massachusetts. Nearly all people at that time believed in witchcraft, 
and in Europe executions for that imaginary crime were frequent. In the 
Salem Farms, near Salem, half a dozen young girls and an Indian servant 
in the household of Rev. Samuel Parris went into fits, played various 



§§ 7°. 7'- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



I6 5 



In 1693, Frontenac began to invade and lay waste 
the country of the Five Nations, and by 1697, serious 
he had wrought such havoc there that these of f t e h a e ts 
haughty Iroquois sued most humbly for mercy. i r °q«ois. 
Their confederacy never recovered from the blows dealt 
it by Count Frontenac. 

71. The Struggle Renewed in Queen Anne's War. 
In 1697, the war between France and England was ended 
by the treaty of 
Ryswick, and thus 
the conflict known 
as King William's 
War was stopped 
in America. But 
the peace was of 
short duration. 
The war in Europe 
broke out again in 
1 70 1, and blood- 
shed was renewed 
in America. As 
William III. died 
early in 1702, and 
was succeeded by acadia. 

Queen Anne, this 

war was known in America as Queen Anne's War. It 
lasted twelve years. In the course of it, the Indians 
perpetrated an atrocious massacre at Deerfield, in 1704, 
and another at Haverhill, in 1708. In the far South, the 
French and Spaniards, who were now in alliance, sent 

queer pranks, and accused several persons of having bewitched them. 
This started a panic which lasted through the greater part of the year 
1692 ; in the course of it, nineteen persons were hanged for witchcraft, 
and one old man, Giles Corey, was pressed to death under heavy weights 
for refusing to plead " Guilty " or " Not Guilty." 




1 66 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

from Cuba a fleet to attack Charleston ; but the gal- 
lant South Carolinians were victorious and drove away 
the assailants. In the North, another expedition sailed 
against Quebec, but failed like the first one. English 
troops, however, British and colonial, conquered Nova 
Scotia ; and when the war was ended by the treaty of 
Utrecht, in 1713, that province was ceded to England, 
and the claim of England to the possession of New- 
foundland and the Hudson Bay country was fully recog- 
nized. 

Frontenac had died at Quebec, in 1698, after having 
so thoroughly beaten the Five Nations that they were 
not of much use to us in Queen Anne's War. In 171 5, 
the fighting strength of the confederacy was partially 
repaired by the adoption of the kindred tribe of the 
Tuscaroras, who, after being driven from North Carolina, 
migrated to central New York. After this accession, the 
Iroquois, henceforth known as the Six Nations, formed 
a power by no means to be despised. 

72. French Development and the Third War. 
Though the French had the worst of it in Queen Anne's 




NEW ORLEANS IN 1719. 1 

War, they kept steadily strengthening their hold upon 
the interior of the continent. They established a series 

1 From Winsor's America, v. 39. 



§ 72. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. l6? 

of fortified posts connecting the Mississippi valley with 
the Great Lakes ; such as Kaskaskia (1700), Cahokia 
(1700), Vincennes (1705), and Detroit (1701). These 
places afterward grew into towns. Iberville, the leader 
in the Schenectady massacre, made the beginnings of 
Mobile, in 1702 ; and, in 171 8, his younger brother, 
Bienville, founded New Orleans. 

In the western and southern country, the French were 
at a long distance from the English. Where they were 
near together there was apt to be trouble, even 

r -T-i Capture of 

in time of peace. The French had an estab- Nomdge- 
lishment at Norridgewock in Maine, where they 
instigated the Abenakis, a neighboring tribe of Indians, 
to attack the New England settlements. In 1 724, a force 
of New England troops captured Norridgewock and de- 
stroyed it. 

At length, in 1743, war again broke out between France 
and England, and lasted five years. In America, this 
was known as King George's War, because 
George II. was then king. Its principal event George's 
was the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton ar ' 
Island, the strongest and most important French fortress 
in America except Quebec. After a siege of six weeks, 
it was taken, on the 17th of June, 1745, by 4,000 New 
England militia aided by four British war-ships. This 
victory was hailed with great enthusiasm on both sides 
of the Atlantic, and the American commander, William 
Pepperell, a wealthy merchant of Maine, was made a 
baronet. But when the war was ended, in 1748, by the 
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the British government restored 
Louisburg to France in exchange for Madras in Hindu- 
stan, which France had taken "from the English. Great 
was the wrath of the New England people when they 
learned that their new conquest had been bartered for a 



1 68 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



heathen city on the 
other side of the 
globe. They knew 
full well that it 
would not be long 
before Louisburg 
would have to be 
conquered again. 

73. War in Ad- 
vance of its Dec- 
laration. It was 
n jt long. The 
peace of 1748 was 
little more than a 
t ice. The people 
of the English col- 
onies, especially 
in Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, and 
Virginia, were be- 
ginning to look 
wistfully across 
the Alleghany 
Mountains ; and, in 1750, the Ohio Company, formed for 
the purpose of colonizing the country along that river, 
„ ,. surveyed its banks as far as the site where 

Fortinca- J 

tionsof Louisville now stands. In 1753, the French, 
taking the alarm, crossed Lake Erie, and began 
to fortify themselves at Presque Isle, at Le Bceuf, and 
at Venango on the Alleghany River. The governor cf 
Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, was much annoyed at this, 
and sent a messenger to warn the French not to advance 
any further. It was a delicate business, requiring firm- 
ness and discretion. The governor intrusted it to a 




FORT DUQUESNE AND ITS APPROACHES. 



§ 73- OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 169 

young land surveyor, only twenty-one years of age, but 
already familiar with Indians and with woodcraft, and 
already noted for courage and sound judgment. The 
name of this young man was George Washington. His 
task involved a winter journey of a thousand miles 
through the wilderness, with seven companions, nego- 
tiations with Indian chiefs as well as French officers, 
and the gathering of information regarding the enemy's 
plans. 

This difficult task was splendidly performed, though, 
of course, the Frenchmen did not heed Washington's 
warnings. The most important point on all that long 
frontier was the spot where Pittsburgh now stands. It 
was the main entrance to the valley of the Ohio, and 
for a long time \ as called the Gateway of the 

itt t 1 1 • riT^, The Gate- 

West. It was the object of the French to way of the 

keep the English colonists, from ever getting 
through this gateway, or across the Alleghany Moun- 
tains. They wished to keep all the interior of the conti- 
nent for themselves. So, in the spring of 1754, while a 
party of English were beginning to build a fort at this 
gateway, a stronger party of French came and drove 
them off, and built a fortress of their own there, which 
they called Fort Duquesne. A regiment of Virginia 
troops was already on its way to the place, and upon the 
death of its commanding officer, George Wash- 

. , . , Washing- 

mgton, the lieutenant-colonel, took command, ton's first 
In a skirmish with the French (May 28, 1754), as aTom" 
Washington fired the first shot in one of the mander - 
greatest wars of modern times. This skirmish brought 
the enemy upon him in overwhelming numbers, and at 
a stockaded place, called Fort Necessity, the young com- 
mander was obliged (July 4) to surrender his little army. 
Thus early was he taught to endure adverse fortune. 



170 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX- 

Things were getting so serious that General Braddock 
came over from England with two regiments of regulars, 
and, early in the summer of 1755, he began his march 
through the forest and toward Fort Duquesne. With 
the colonial militia there were more than 2,000 men, and 
Washington accompanied the expedition as one of Brad- 
dock's staff. Braddock was ignorant of woodland fight- 
ing, and was possessed by the dangerous delusion that 
„ r , Indians were not formidable antagonists. He 

Defeat of ° . 

Braddock's refused to take good advice, and paid the pen- 
alty. Deep in the wilderness near Fort Du- 
quesne he marched into an ambush, and his army was 
cut to pieces. More than 700 were slain, including 
Braddock himself with three fourths of his officers, and 
total destruction was averted only by the skill and prow- 
ess of Washington. The loss of the French and Indians 
did not exceed sixty men. 

At this time there was danger that the French would 
attempt to recover Nova Scotia, or Acadia, as it was then 
usually called. Since its conquest by the English, the 
peasants of Acadia had shown much disaffection. In 
1755, a force of New England troops landed in 
movaiof Acadia, and offered the inhabitants the alterna- 
Sans from tive °f taking the oath of allegiance to George 
their \\ or being; removed from their country. More 

homes. ° 

than 6,000 people who refused the oath were, 
accordingly, removed and distributed among the English 
colonies. The removal was attended with much suffer- 
ing, but was felt to be a needful military measure. 
Many of the exiles found their way to Louisiana, and 
have left numerous descendants in that state. 

74. The Fourth War between France and England. 
The defeat of Braddock and the removal of the Acadians 
occurred before war between France and Great Britain 



74- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



171 



was actually declared. The war which ensued, from 
1756 to 1763, and which is known as the Seven Years' 
War, covered a large part of the earth's surface. The Sev 
France combined with Austria and Russia in Years' 
the attempt to conquer Prussia, which was then 
a small kingdom. But Frederick the Great, king of 
Prussia, proved himself in this war one of the greatest 




WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF CHATHAM. 1 



generals that ever lived. England came to his aid, and 
the enemies of England and Prussia were terribly de- 
feated. On England's part, the war was managed by one 
of the greatest statesmen the world has ever seen, the 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, a publication issued in Philadel- 
phia in the early part of this centurv. 



172 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



Johnson's 
defense of 
the New 
York fron 
tier in 
1755. 



elder William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham. By his 
firm support of Prussia, Pitt kept the main strength of 
France busily engaged in Europe, while English fleets 
attacked her on the ocean, and English armies drove her 
not only from America, but also from India, where she 
had also gained a foothold. 

In America, the defeat of Braddock was not a cheerful 
opening of the war for the English. Further misfortunes 
followed it. On the New York frontier, the 
English cause was sustained by Sir William 
Johnson, an Irishman who had come to Amer- 
ica, in 1738, and settled in the valley of the Mo- 
hawk. Johnson's influence over the Indians 
of the Six Nations was wonderful, and he was one of 
the most remarkable men of his time. In September, 
1755, he defeated the French in a bloody battle on the 
shore of Lake George. After this he built Fort Wil- 
liam Henry to defend the northern approaches to the 
Hudson River. The French fortified Ticonderoga for 

themselves. 

In 1756, the 
French, under 
their very able gen- 
eral, the Marquis 
de Montcalm, cap- 
tured Oswego and 
gained control of 
Lake Ontario. In 
1757, Montcalm 
captured Fort Wil- 
liam Henry, when 
a distressing affair 
occurred. The 

English garrison 




NEW YORK IN THE FRENCH WAR. 



§74- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



173 



was promised a safe escort to Fort Edward, on the Hud- 
son River, but the faithless Indians fell upon _ 

r Successes 

the prisoners and massacred them, in spite of all of Mont- 
the French officers could do to restrain their 
fury. The next summer (1758), General Abercrombie, 
at the head of 15,000 British and colonial troops, the 
largest army yet assembled in America, assaulted Ticon- 
deroga, but was terribly defeated by Montcalm. 

This was the last important French victory. With 
prodigious exertions, about 50,000 English troops had 
been raised, — half of them British, half Amer- Turn of 
ican, — and great things began to be done. In the tlde " 
July, we captured Louisburg again, and, in November, 
we captured Fort Duquesne and changed its name to 
Fort Pitt ; since then 



BlIIBiailllillBIII'lllll 



it has come to be the H^H HHR 

city of Pittsburgh, still 

bearing the name of v & 

the great statesman. 
Colonel Washington 
took part in this affair 
and added to his repu- 
tation. 

The next year, 1759, 
saw the great struggle 
decided. In July, the 
English took Forts Ni- 
agara and Ticonderoga. 
The youthful General 
Wolfe spent the sum- 
mer in fruitless attempts to take Quebec, where Mont- 
calm was ensconced with 7,000 men. The place was 
nowhere open to a land attack except upon the north- 

1 After a print in Entick's History of the Late War, London, 1764, iv. 90. 




WOLFE. 1 



174 



COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Ch. IX. 



west side, where the precipice was so steep as to be 

„ T „ deemed inaccessible. At length, Wolfe found 
How Wolfe . . . b .. 

captured a place where his men with herculean toil could 

climb this bluff. It was done under cover of 
darkness, and, on the morning of the 13th of September, 
the astonished Montcalm beheld an English force 5,000 
strong confronting him upon the Heights of Abraham. 
In the battle which followed, the French were totally de- 
feated. At the decisive moment, the two heroic command- 
ers were borne from the field with mortal wounds, and 

as life ebbed away, 

each said his brief 

^( r "" and touching words 

X~;' which will never be 

forgotten. " Now, 
God be praised, I 
will die in peace," 
said Wolfe ; " Thank 
God, I shall not live 
to see Quebec sur- 
rendered," said the 
faithful Frenchman. 

The surrender of 
Quebec, which took 
place a few days later, 
decided the fate of Canada. But the Seven Years' War 
did not come to an end until Spain had taken 
up arms in aid of France. Then, in 1762, Eng- 
land conquered Cuba and the Philippine Islands. 
When peace was made, in the treaty of Paris, 
1763, England gave all these islands back to 
Spain and took Florida in exchange. In order to indem- 




MONTCALM. 



Transfer of 

territory 

after the 

Seven 

Years' 

War. 

1763. 



1 After an engraving in Bonnechose's Montcalm et le Canada Francais, 
Paris, 1882. 



74, 75- 



OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 



175 



nify Spain for this loss of Florida, incurred through alli- 
ance with France, the latter power ceded to Spain the 
city of New Orleans and all the scarcely known territory 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Moun- 
tains. The country between the Mississippi and the 
Alleghanies, and the whole of Canada, were surrendered 
to Great Britain, 
so that not an 
acre of mainland 
in North Amer- 
ica remained in 
the possession of 
France. No other 
treaty ever trans- 
ferred such im- 
mense portions of 
the earth's sur- 
face from one na- 
tion to another. 

75. The Algonquin Indians Left Unprotected, 
complete overthrow of the French came as a terrible 
shock to the Algonquin Indians, who now found them- 
selves quite unprotected from the encroachments of 
English settlers. It occurred to Pontiac, chief of the 
Ottawas, that if all the tribes could be made to unite 
in a grand assault upon the English, there might be a 
chance of overthrowing them. Pontiac succeeded in 
arousing to bloodshed most of the tribes be- . , 

t> Pontiac s 

tween the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, and scheme to 
he even prevailed upon the Senecas, one of the the 
Six Nations, to join him. The war broke out En s llsh - 
in 1763, soon after the end of the great French War. 
Two years of savage butchery followed, in the course of 
which many of the English forest garrisons in the West 




NORTH AMERICA AFTER THE PEACE OF 1 763. 



The 



I76 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

were overcome and massacred, and the frontiers, espe- 
cially in Pennsylvania, became the scene of diabolical 
atrocities. At Bushy Run, in the Alleghanies, in 1764, 
Colonel Henry Bouquet won the fiercest battle ever 
fought between white men and Indians ; the Senecas 
were browbeaten and cajoled by Sir William Johnson ; 
and finally, Pontiac, after suing for peace, was murdered 
in the woods at Cahokia. Useless butchery was all that 
ever came of his deep-laid scheme. 

topics and questions. 

68. The Mississippi Valley Claimed for France by La 

Salle. 

1. French traders and missionaries in the northwest. 

2. The discovery of the Mississippi. 

3. La Salle and the Griffin. 

4. La Salle and the mutineers. 

5. The second attempt to explore the Mississippi, and its 

failure. 

6. The third attempt, and its success. 

7. What the Louisiana of La Salle included. 

8. The New France of Champlain and of La Salle. 

9. Efforts to take armed possession of Louisiana. 

69. The Outbreak of War between France and England. 

1. How did the French propose to defend their claims ? 

2. In what way did the English become involved in war with 

the French? 

3. Why is 1689 an important date in American history ? 

4. What two great struggles fill up the Middle Period ? 

70. The Blows of Frontenac 

1. How Frontenac won the favor of Indians. 

2. His plan for conquering New York. 

3. How the Iroquois saved New York. 

4. The massacre at Schenectady. 

5. Frontenac's dreadful war parties in New England. 

6. The story of Hannah Dustin. 

7. New England's vain endeavors to punish Frontenac. 

8. Frontenac's victories over the Iroquois. 

71. The Struggle Renewed in Queen Anne's War. 

1. The treaty of Ryswick. 



Ch. IX. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 1 77 

2. Queen Anne's War. 

3. Leading events in this war. 

4. English gains by the treaty of Utrecht. 

5. The Iroquois in Queen Anne's War and later. 

72. French Development and the Third War. 

1. A chain of French forts, and their object. 

2. The Norridgewock episode. 

3. King George's War. 

4. The capture of Louisburg. 

5. Louisburg under the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

6. The wrath of New England excited. 

73. War in Advance of its Declaration. 

1. What was the purpose of the Ohio Company ? 

2. What did the French do in their alarm? 

3. What warning did Virginia give the French? 

4. Describe the messenger and his performance. 

5. Tell about the Gateway of the West. 

6. Show how the French and English struggled for it, and 

why. 

7. Describe Washington's movement to capture Fort Du- 

quesne, and what came of it. 

8. Describe Braddock's movement to do the same, and what 

came of it. 

9. What alternative was offered the Acadians, and why ? 
10. Give an account of their removal. 

74. The Fourth War between France and England. 

1. The dates and extent of the Seven Years' War. 

2. The nations involved in it. 

3. England's management of her part in it. 

4. Johnson's defense of the New York frontier, in 1755.' 

5. Montcalm's successes in three campaigns. 

6. The turn of the tide. 

7. How Wolfe captured Quebec. 

8. How Florida came into English possession. 

9. Louisiana east of the Mississippi. 

10. Louisiana west of the Mississippi. 

11. The end of French plans in North America. 

75. The Algonquin Indians Left Unprotected. 

1. The plight of these Indians, and its cause. 

2. Pontiac's great scheme. 

3. The tribes enlisted in it. 



I78 COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

4. Two years of savage warfare. 

5. The fate of Pontiac. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. France and England were involved in each of these European 

wars : 

a. The war of the Palatinate, 1689-1697. 

b. The war of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1713. 

c. The war of the Austrian Succession, 1 743-1 748. 

d. The Seven Years' War, 1 756-1 763. 

Show how France and England became involved. What wars 
in North America corresponded to them ? By what treaty 
was each of these wars closed ? What were the gains and 
losses of territory in North America for France and England 
by each of these treaties ? Make a table of the four French 
and English wars in America, with their dates and leading 
events. 

2. What regions did New France in its greatest extent embrace? 

3. What regions did Louisiana in its greatest extent embrace ? 

4. What was the basis of the French claim to Louisiana ? 

5. Grants of land by the English extended how far west? 

6. What was the basis of the English claim to the lands thus 

granted ? 

7. Was not the French claim as reasonable as the English ? 

8. Show how conflicts were inevitable because of these claims. 

9. Compare French settlers and English in the following points: 

a. Treatment of the Indians. 

b. Missionary spirit. 

c. Toleration of other religions. 

d. Dependence on the home government in Europe. 

e. Rapidity and greatness of development. 

10. Why did the English gradually work westward? Why do 

people nowadays work westward ? 

11. Locate on their appropriate maps all places mentioned in the text. 

12. Were Indians engaged on both sides in each of the wars of this 

period? Were they as cruel on one side as on the other? 
Wherein did Indian warfare differ from French or English 
warfare ? Is not all warfare essentially cruel and brutal ? 
Is it possible always to avoid war? 

13. What feasible policy of colonization might have saved New 



Ch. IX. OVERTHROW OF NEW FRANCE. 1 79 

France for the French? Were Huguenots, for instance, 
encouraged to settle in New France ? 

14. On what facts of history in the text is Longfellow's Evangeline 

based ? Compare the French view of the banishment of the 
Acadians with the English. Which view does the poem 
present? How much of the poem is to be trusted as histor- 
ical truth ? How much is imagination ? Select from the 
poem pleasing lines about Acadian history, life, or scenery. 

15. What reminders of old New France are there in North Amer- 

ica to-day ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

Of the twelve volumes of Parkman's works, as published by 
Little, Brown & Company, of Boston, eleven deal more or less 
directly with the events lightly touched in this chapter. If the 
pupil will read the few selections here indicated, he will hardly fail 
to extend his reading to other parts of the intensely fascinating 
books from which they are taken. 

From La Salle and the Discoveries of the Great West : 

1. Louis XIV. proclaimed King of the Great West, 40-46. 

2. Marquette and Joliet's discovery of the Mississippi, 51-64. 

3. The vast projects of La Salle, 73, 74. 

4. Destruction of the great village of the Illinois, 201-221. 

5. La Salle's descent of the Mississippi, 275-288. 

6. The assassination of La Salle, 396-408. 
From Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. : 

1. The plan of Louis XIV. to conquer New York, 184-190. 

2. The boldness of Frontenac in dealing with the Indians, 

191-207. 

3. Frontenac's three war parties : 

a. The Montreal party and Schenectady, 208-219. 

b. The Three Rivers party and Pemaquid, 219-228. 

c. The Quebec party and Fort Loyal, 228-234. 

4. The romantic career of Sir William Phips, 241-243. 

5. Frontenac's defense of Quebec, 262-285. 

6. The Iroquois the scourge of Canada, 286-315. 

7. Why another France did not grow up beyond the Alle- 

ghanies, 394~39 6 - 

8. The humbling of the Iroquois, 410-427. 



ISO COLONIZATION OF NORTH AMERICA. Ch. IX. 

From A Half Century of Conflict : 

1. The founding of Detroit, i. 15-31. 

2. The Deerfield tragedy, i. 52-89. 

3. The story of Sebastien Rale, i. 204-240. 

4. Lovewell's fight with the Pequawkets, i. 247-260. 

5. The Foxes at Detroit, i. 262-287. 

6. The chain of posts, ii. 63-77. 

7. The siege and capture of Louisburg, ii. 108-160. 
From Montcalm and Wolfe: 

1. Washington baffled by the French and Indians, i. 132-161. 

2. Braddock's march and defeat, i. 204-226. 

3. The expulsion of the Acadians, i. 234-284. 

4. The battle of Lake George, i. 285-316. 

5. The capture of Fort William Henry, i. 474-513. 

6. The triumph of Montcalm at Ticonderoga, ii. 83-112. 

7. The Heights of Abraham, ii. 259-297. 

8. The last of New France, ii. 408-412. 
From The Conspiracy of Pontiac : 

1. The story of the French and English wars reviewed, 

i. 95-141- 

2. The wilderness and its tenants, i. 642-660. 

3. The Indians angered by English inroads, i. 172-180. 

4. Pontiac and his great plot, i. 180-190. 

5. The treachery of Pontiac, i. 223-231. 

6. An Indian game of ball and its awful sequel, i. 338-367. 

7. Frontier forts and settlements, ii. 1-27. 

8. The war on the borders, ii. 28-53. 

9. The Indians forced by Bouquet to give up their captives, 

ii. 219-235. 

10. The strange charms of forest life, ii. 237-240. 

11. The death of Pontiac, ii. 299-313. 



THE REVOLUTION. 
1763-1789. 



CHAPTER X. 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 1763-1776. 

76. Causes of 111 Feeling between England and her 
Colonies. When European nations began to plant colo- 
nies in America, they treated them in accordance with a 
theory which prevailed until it was upset by the Ameri- 
can Revolution. According to this ignorant and bar- 
barous theory, a colony was a community which 

J J * The Euro- 

existed only for the purpose of enriching the peanidea 

country which had founded it ; and the great and its ° ny 
object in founding a colony was to create a de- ob J ect 
pendent community for the purpose of trading with it. 
People's ideas about trade were very absurd. It was not 
understood that when two parties trade with each other 
freely, both must be gainers, or else one would soon stop 
trading. It was supposed that in trade, just as in gam- 
bling or betting, what the one party gains the other loses. 
Accordingly, laws were made to regulate trade, so that, as 
far as possible, all the loss might fall upon the colonies, 
and all the gain accrue to the mother country. For this 
purpose, the colonies were required to confine their trade 
entirely to Great Britain. No American colony could 
send its rice, or its indigo, or its tobacco to France or 
to Holland, or anywhere except to Great Britain ; nor 
could it buy a yard of French silk, or a pound of Chinese 



1 82 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

tea, except from British merchants. Then, although 
American ships might take goods over to Eng- 
tions in land, the carrying trade between the different 
turing and colonies was by law confined to British ships, 
trading. Next, in order to protect British manufacturers 
from competition, it was thought necessary to prohibit 
the colonists from manufacturing. They might grow 
wool, but it must be carried to England to be woven 
into cloth ; they might smelt iron, but it must be car- 
ried to England to be made into plowshares. Finally, 
in order to protect British farmers and their landlords, 
corn laws were enacted, putting a prohibitory tariff on 
all kinds of grain and other farm produce shipped from 
the colonies to ports in Great Britain. 

Such tyrannical laws had begun to be passed in the 
reign of Charles II., but they were not very strictly en- 
forced, because so long as the French were a power in 
America, the British officials felt that they could not af- 
ford to irritate the colonists beyond endurance. In spite 
of laws to the contrary, the carrying trade between the 
colonies was almost monopolized by vessels owned, built, 
and manned in New England ; and the smuggling of 
foreign goods into Boston and New York and other sea- 
port towns was winked at. 

In 1 76 1, attempts were made to enforce the revenue 
laws more strictly ; and trouble was at once threatened. 
Charles Paxton, commissioner of customs in Boston, ap- 
plied to the Superior Court to grant him the authority to 
use writs of assistance in searching for smuggled goods. 

A writ of assistance was a general search war- 
Efforts tO /y • 

enforce rant, empowering the officer armed with it to 
iyThe S rev- " enter, by force if necessary, any dwelling house 
enueiaws. or ware h ouse where contraband goods were 
supposed to be stored or hidden. A special search 



§ 7 6. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 183 

warrant was one in which the name of the suspected per- 
son, and the house which it was proposed to search, were 
accurately specified, and the goods which it was intended 
to seize were as far as possible described. In the use 
of such special warrants there was not much danger of 
gross injustice or oppression, because the court would 
not be likely to grant one, unless strong evidence could 
be brought against the person whom it named. But the 
general search warrant, or writ of assistance, was quite 
a different affair. It was a blank form upon which the 
custom house officer might fill in the names of persons 
and descriptions of houses and goods to suit himself. 
Then he could summon the sheriff to help him break 
into the houses and seize the goods. The writ of assist- 
ance was, therefore, an outrageous instrument of tyranny; 
but the issue of such writs was strictly legal, because it 
had been allowed by an old act of Parliament which had 
never been repealed. 

The case was tried in the council chamber in the build- 
ing now known as the Old State House, in Boston. 
The eloquent James Otis, in opposition to the granting 
of the writs, made a great speech which tended to raise 
the question, how far were Americans bound to yield 
obedience to laws which they had no share in making. 
The writs were granted, and custom house officers began 
breaking into warehouses, and seizing goods which were 
said to have been smuggled ; but sometimes the owners 
armed themselves, and barricaded their doors and win- 
dows, and thus the officers were often successfully de- 
fied, for the sheriff was in no haste to come and help 
them. 

These things produced much ill feeling, but were 
hardly enough to bring on a revolution. For that some 
more direct and flagrant attack on American liberty was 



1 84 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



Difficulty 
in carrying 
on the 
French 
wars. 



enough. 



required ; and such an attack was soon made. Let us 
see how it was that the British government came to 
make such an attack. 

77. The Need of a Federal Union. The great war 
with France had been carried on by British and Ameri- 
can troops, and its expense was borne partly by 
Great Britain, partly by the colonies. Now one 
great difficulty in carrying on the war was the 
difficulty in getting men and money promptly 
This was because there was no general govern- 
ment in America, but only the separate governments of 

the thirteen colonies. 
One colony would 
wait for another to 
act, and a colony not 
immediately exposed 
to invasion would be 
very slow in raising 
either soldiers or sup- 
plies. There ought 
to have been some 
power in America 
legally able to enlist 
soldiers from the 
whole people, and to 
tax the whole peo- 
ple for the support 
of the war. There 
was no such power, and the country suffered for want 
of it. 

In order to create such a power it would be necessary 
to join the colonies together into a Federal Union. One 

1 It was situated on Milk Street, Boston, nearly opposite the Old South 
Church. It was burned down in 1810. 




BIRTHPLACE OF FRANKLIN. 1 




(yzUyToJ^ 







After a painting by Duplessis in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 



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§7;- 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



I8 7 



wise man tried to bring this about, but did not succeed. 
In 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed his Plan Benjamin 
of Union. At that time, Franklin was forty- Franklin - 
eight years old. He was born in Boston, but went to 
Philadelphia at the age of seventeen, and became estab- 
lished in business, first as a printer, afterward as editor 
of the Pennsylvania Gazette. He founded the Philadel- 
phia Library and the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. He 
made many useful inventions, 
among them, a kind of open 
stove that has not yet gone 
out of use. He also made 
one of the greatest scientific 
discoveries of the age, in 
1752, when, by experiments 
with a kite, he proved that 
lightning is a discharge of 
electricity. He was also one 

of the finest prose writers of that century. In 1753, the 
king appointed him postmaster-general for America, and 
for the rest of his long life he played an important part 
in public affairs. 

In 1754, when the war with France was breaking out, 
several colonies sent delegates to a Congress at Albany, 
to insure the friendly aid of the Six Nations. Franklin , s 
Franklin was present at this Congress, and Plan of 

. r , .. Union. 

proposed a Plan of Union for the colonies. 
According to this plan, the colonies were to elect a 
Grand Council which was to meet every year at Phila- 
delphia, the most centrally situated large town. This 
council would have had powers similar to those of our 

1 This press may now be seen at the rooms of the Bostonian Society, 
in the Old State House, at Boston. 




franklin's printing press. 1 



1 88 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

National House of Representatives ; it could levy taxes, 
enlist soldiers, build forts, and was to be supreme over 
matters which concerned all the colonies alike. Then 
there was to be a president appointed and paid by the 
crown, and with authority to veto the acts of the Grand 
Council. 

This plan of union has ever since been called the Al- 
bany Plan. If the Revolution had not occurred, we 
should very likely have been living under some such 
kind of constitution to-day. On the other hand, if the 
Albany Plan had been adopted in 1754, it is quite pos- 
sible that there would have 
been no Revolution. Franklin 
strongly felt the need of such 
a Federal Union, and for a 
while his Pennsylvania Ga- 
zette appeared with a union 
device and the motto " Unite 
or Die." 1 But not one of the colonies accepted the plan. 
The people cared little or nothing for union. A native 
of Massachusetts regarded himself as a Massachusetts 
man, or a New Englander, or an Englishman ; not as an 
American, with Pennsylvanians and Virginians for coun- 
trymen. So it was with all the colonies ; in all, the feel- 
ing of Americanism grew but slowly. 

78. The Stamp Act Passed and Repealed. The 
French War and Pontiac's War proved that some kind 
of general government that could levy taxes and enlist 
soldiers was an absolute necessity, and since the people 
of the colonies would not make such a government, the 
British undertook to provide one for us. In other words, 
Parliament undertook to support a small army for the 

1 The initials NE, NY, etc., on the fragments of the snake, beginning 
at the head, stand for New England, New York, etc. 




OR DIE 

"'lNHiinmrr m 



§78. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



189 



defense of the colonies, and to raise the needful money 
by a tax gathered from the people of the colonies. It 
was thought that the pleasantest and easiest way to raise 
the money would be through revenue stamps. It did not 
call for any hateful searching of people's houses and 
shops, or any unpleasant questions about their The stamp 
incomes, or about their invested or hoarded b y ct P arff a e . d 
wealth. It only required that legal documents ment - 
and commercial instruments should be written, and news- 
papers printed, on stamped paper. While a stamp tax 
is thus less annoying than any other kind of tax, it is 
very effective for raising money, for it is impossible to 
evade it ; it enforces itself. For these reasons, Parlia- 
ment, in 1765, passed the Stamp Act. 

Such an act was something entirely new and unheard 
of in American history. In each colony there was an 
assembly or legislature elected by the people, and this 
assembly was the only power that 
could tax the people. In other 
words, the people could be taxed 
only by their own representatives. 
This principle had been estab- 
lished in America from the very 
beginning ; and naturally enough, 
because it was a principle that had 
been recognized in England for at 
least five centuries. In the year 
1265, the first House of Commons, 
called together by the great Simon de Montfort, an- 
nounced this principle. Kings sometimes violated it, 
but at their peril. It was in great part for trying to raise 
taxes illegally that Charles I. was beheaded. 

Now the people of the American colonies were not 

1 From The Memorial History of Boston, iii. 12. 




A STAMP.! 



190 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



How this 
Act was 
received by 

the crown 

colonists 



represented in the British Parliament, and the Stamp 
Act violated the great principle that the people must not 
be taxed except by their own representatives. It was a 
dangerous tax. The Americans did not wish 
to support a standing army controlled by the 
under a bad king such an army might 
be used to destroy their liberties. People in 
New England could remember Andros ; people in Vir- 
ginia could re- 
member Berkeley 
and his deeds of 
blood. If there 
must be a mili- 
tary force over 
here, the people 
preferred to raise 
it in their own 
way and control it 
themselves. 

When the news 
of the Stamp Act 
reached America, 
the colonial legis- 
latures met and 
passed resolutions. 
Two men came to 
the front, Samuel 
Adams in Massa- 
chusetts, Patrick 
Henry in Vir- 
ginia. The former was one of the ablest political writers, 
the latter was one of the most brilliant orators, of that 
age. Both Adams and Henry declared that taxation with- 

1 After a painting by Copley in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 




SAMUEL ADAMS. 1 



§ 7«. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



191 



out representation was illegal, and would not be endured. 
A Congress was held at New York which approved of 
these resolutions, 
and sent over to 
England a remon- 
strance denying 
the right of Par- 
liament to tax the 
Americans. There 
were riots in sev- 
eral cities. Boxes 
of stamped paper 
arriving by ship 
were seized and 
burned ; lawyers 
agreed with one 
another not to 
treat any docu- 
ment as invali- 
dated by the ab- 
sence of the required stamp ; editors published their 
newspapers decorated with a grinning skull and cross- 
bones instead of the stamp. 

As the Americans would not buy or use the stamps, 
Parliament repealed the Stamp Act the next year, 1766, 
after a fierce debate that lasted three months. T , . . 

Repeal of 

William Pitt declared that such an act ought the stamp 

Act 

never to have been passed, and he praised the 
Americans for resisting a bad and dangerous law. The 
majority in Parliament did not take this view ; they re- 
pealed the law as a concession to the Americans, but 
declared that Parliament had a right to make whatever 
laws it pleased. But some men of great influence agreed 

1 After a painting by Sully. 




PATRICK HENRY.l 



192 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



with Pitt in holding that such a form of taxation without 
representation was unconstitutional and ought to be re- 
sisted. 

79. Taxation in England. The people of London 
were delighted at the repeal of the Stamp Act, and it 
seemed as if all the trouble were at an end. So it might 
have been, but for that agreement of opinion between 
the Americans and Pitt. In getting such a powerful 
friend in Pitt, the Americans found an implacable enemy 
in the new king, George III., who had come to the throne 
in 1 760, at the age of twenty-two. There was then going 

on in England a hot dispute 
over this very same business 
of " no taxation without rep- 
resentation,'' and it was a 
dispute in which the youth- 
ful king felt bound to op- 
pose Pitt to the bitter end. 
Let us see just what the 
dispute was. 

In such a body as the 
British House of Commons 
or the American House of 
Representatives, the differ- 
ent parts of the country are 
represented according to 
population. For example, to-day New York, with over 
5,000,000 inhabitants, has thirty-four representatives in 
Congress, while Delaware, with about 170,000 inhabit- 
ants, has only one representative. This is a fair pro- 
portion ; but as population increases faster in some 
places than in others, the same proportion is liable to 
become unfair. To keep it fair it must now and then be 

1 After a print in Entick's History of the Late Wa7; 3d ed., London, 
1770, vol. iv. 




GEORGE III. 1 



§79. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. I93 

changed. In the United States, every tenth year, after 
a new census has been taken, we have the Howthe 
seats in the House of Representatives freshly jifP^rfthe 
distributed among the States, so that the rep- people is 

, , r • a 1 kept fair in 

resentation is always kept pretty fair. A hun- the united 
dred men in any one part of the country count tates ' 
for about as much as a hundred men in any other 
part. 

Now in England, when George III. came to the throne, 
there had been nothing like a redistribution of seats in 
the House of Commons for more than two hun- 
dred years. During that time, some old towns f affairs 
and districts had dwindled in population, and George m. 
some great cities had lately grown up, such as " me t0 the 
Manchester and Sheffield. These cities had 
no representatives in Parliament, which was as absurd 
and unfair as it would be for a great state like Missouri 
to have no representatives in Congress. On the other 
hand, the little towns and thinly peopled districts kept 
on having just as many representatives as ever. One 
place, the famous Old Sarum, had members in Parlia- 
ment long after it had ceased to have any inhabitants at 
all! 

The result was that people who could not get repre- 
sentation in Parliament by fair means got it by foul 
means. Seats for the little towns and districts were 
simply bought and sold, and such practices made politi- 
cal life at that time very corrupt. Parliament did not 
truly represent the people of Great Britain ; it repre- 
sented the group of powerful persons that could buy up 
enough seats to control a majority of votes. 

During the reigns of the first two Georges, this group 
of powerful persons consisted of the leaders of the party 
of Old Whigs. They ruled England, and reduced the 



194 



THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X- 



power of the crown to insignificance. Their rule was 
mostly wise and good, but it was partly based on bribery 
and corruption. The Old Whigs may be called the Aris- 
tocratic party. Among their leaders were such great 
men as Charles Fox and Edmund Burke. 

When George III. became king, he was determined to 
be a real king, to set the Old Whig families at defiance, 
and to rule Great Britain according to his own notions. 
In these views the young king was generally supported 
by the Tories, whom we may call the Royalist party. 
In order to succeed in their schemes, it was necessary 
to beat the Old Whigs at their own game, and secure 
a steady majority in Parliament by methods involving 
bribery and corruption. 

Beside these two parties of Tories and Old Whigs, a 
third had been for some time growing up. It was called 
the party of New Whigs. As opposed alike to Royalists 
and Aristocrats, the New Whigs were the Democrats of 
that time. Among sundry reforms advocated by them, 
the most important was the redistribution of seats in the 
House of Commons. They wished to stop the whole- 
sale corruption, and to make that assembly truly repre- 
sent the people of Great Britain. The principal leader 
of this party was William Pitt, who, in 1 766, became Earl 
of Chatham. 

We can now see why the antagonism between the king 
„,,,., and Pitt was so obstinate and bitter. With a 

The king's . 

bitterness reformed Parliament, the king s schemes would 
and his rea- be ruined ; their only chance of success lay 
son for it. j n k ee p{ n g t ne old kind of Parliament with 
all its corruptions. So when Pitt declared that it was 
wrong for the people of great cities, like Leeds and Bir- 
mingham, who paid their full share of taxes, not to be 
represented in Parliament, the king felt this to be a very 



§§ 79, So. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. I95 

dangerous argument. He felt bound to oppose it by 
every means in his power. 

Now the debates on the Stamp Act showed that the 
same principle applied to the Americans as to the inhab- 
itants of Birmingham and Leeds. " No taxation without 
representation," the watchword of Patrick Henry and 
Samuel Adams, was also the watchword of William Pitt. 
The king, therefore, felt that in the repeal of the Stamp 
Act, no matter on what ground, the New Whigs had 
come altogether too near winning a victory. He could 
not let the matter rest, but felt it necessary to take it up 
again, and press it until the Americans should submit to 
be taxed by Parliament. This quarrel between George 
III. and the Americans grew into the Revolutionary 
War. In that struggle, the people of England were not 
our enemies ; we had nowhere better friends than among 
the citizens of London, and on the floors of the House of 
Commons and the House of Lords. As a rule, the New 
Whigs and Old Whigs sympathized with the Americans ; 
of the Tories, some went heartily with the king, while 
others disapproved his measures, but were unwilling to 
oppose them. Among the Americans there were a good 
many Tories, mostly of the latter class. 

80. A New Scheme for Taxing America. The quar- 
rel was begun in 1767, when Charles Townshend, chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, carried through Parliament a new 
bill for taxing the Americans. This bill put a duty upon 
tea, glass, paper, and a few other articles, upon entering 
American ports. The colonists, said Townshend, had 
paid port duties before ; let them now do so again. But 
when we observe what use was to be made of the reve- 
nue thus collected, we shall see why the Americans were 
not likely to submit to such duties. Governors, judges, 
and crown attorneys were to be made independent of the 



196 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



Lord 

North. 

ister. 



colonial legislatures by having their salaries paid by the 
crown out of this money. A small army was also to be 
kept up ; and if any surplus remained, it could be used 
by the crown in giving pensions to Americans, and thus 
be made to serve as a corruption fund. These measures 
would put the whole administration of affairs into the 
hands of officials responsible only to the crown ; and to 
ask the Americans to submit to them was about as sen- 
sible as it would have been to ask them to buy halters 
and hang themselves. 

After getting these measures passed, Townshend sud- 
denly died, and his place was taken by Lord 
North, who soon afterward became Prime Min- 
North was one of those Tories who did not fully 

mmgmmmm - ^ approve the king's con- 

al duct, but were unwill- 
- ' rx^ ~, ! ing to oppose him in 

anything. Through his 
personal influence over 
Lord North, the king 
contrived to have his 
own way from 1768 to 
1782, and he must be 
held responsible for 
driving the Americans 
into the Revolution. 

The Americans at 
first met the Towns- 
hend acts by forming 
associations pledged to abstain from importing the duti- 
able articles. The Massachusetts assembly sent a cir- 
cular letter to the assemblies of the other colonies, 
inviting them to concert measures of resistance. This 

1 From the London (1801) edition of Junius. 




LORD NORTH. 



§8o. 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



IQ7 



enraged the king, and presently an order came across 
the ocean to the governor of Massachusetts to „ 

How the 

demand of the assembly that it rescind its cir- colonists 
cular letter, under penalty of instant dissolu- Towns- 
tion. The assembly, by a vote of ninety-two hendacts - 
to seventeen, refused to rescind, and was turned out of 
doors. In some other colonies, the assemblies were 
dissolved for replying favorably to the Massachusetts 
letter. During the next few years, the royal governors 
dissolved the assemblies so often as to interfere seri- 
ously with public business. In Virginia, the assembly, 
after being thus dismissed, used sometimes to meet in- 
formally as a convention in the large ball room of the 
Raleigh Tavern at Williamsburg (known as the Apollo 




APOLLO ROOM IN THE RALEIGH TAVERN. 1 



Room), and there agree upon the course to be pursued. 
In Massachusetts, when the assembly was dismissed, its 
work was to some extent carried on by the Boston town 
meeting in Faneuil Hall, where so many important 
things were done that it came to be called the Cradle 

1 From the Magazine of American History, vol. xi. 



198 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



of Liberty. In the most exciting times, however, 
Faneuil Hall was too small to hold the people, and the 
meeting used to adjourn to the Old South Meeting- 
house. 

In the autumn of 1768, the king sent a couple of 




FANEUIL HALL, " THE CRADLE OF LIBERTY." * 

regiments of British regulars to Boston, to assist in 
British enforcing the Townshend acts. This was a 
regulars. ^g^ m easure, sure to invite disturbance, and 
the only wonder is that the disturbance did not come 
sooner. In March, 1770, after the troops had been 
nearly a year and a half in the town, there occurred a 

1 It was built in 1740-42, at the expense of Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot 
merchant of Boston, as a market house for the town. The second story 
contained the spacious hall which was used for public meetings. The 
building was enlarged and improved, without altering its style, in 1806. 



§§ 80, 81. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. igg 

scrimmage one evening, in which seven soldiers fired 
into a crowd of townspeople, killing five and wounding 
several others. Next day there was an immense meet- 
ing at the Old South Meeting-house, and Samuel Adams 
called upon the governor in his council chamber, and, 
in the name of three thousand freemen, sternly com- 
manded him to remove the soldiers from the town. 
Before sunset they had all been withdrawn to one of 
the little islands in the harbor. 

81. The Widening of the Breach. When the news 
of this rebuff reached the king, it found him rather 
discouraged. Business in London was suffer- „ 

Certain 

ing because the Americans would not import duties 
goods, and, in April, 1770, Parliament took off repeae 
all the Townshend duties except the duty on tea, which 
the king insisted upon retaining, in order to avoid sur- 
rendering the principle at issue. He was waiting for 
a chance to "try the question " with America. Mean- 
while, there were disturbances in different colonies ; in 
North Carolina, there was an insurrection against the 
governor, which was suppressed only after a bloody 
skirmish ; in Rhode Island, the revenue schooner Gas- 
pee was seized and burned, and when an order came 
from the ministry requiring the offenders to be sent to 
England for trial, the chief justice of Rhode Island, 
Stephen Hopkins, refused to obey the order. 

In August, 1772, it was ordered that in Massachu- 
setts the judges should henceforth be paid by the 
crown. Popular excitement rose to fever heat, and the 
judges were threatened with impeachment should they 
dare accept a penny from the royal treasury. "Commit- 
Samuel Adams put in operation a scheme by con-espon- 
which government could go on in the absence den c e " 
of a legislature. Each town in Massachusetts appointed 



200 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 




a committee to confer with the committees of other 
towns. These were called " committees of correspon- 
dence." Any single committee, after obtaining the 
approval of the others, was capable of conducting very 

important affairs. 
All the commit- 
tees meeting to- 
gether would 
make a " Provin- 
cial Congress." 

In the next 
spring, 1773, Vir- 
ginia carried this 
work of organiz- 
ing revolution a 
long step further, 
when Dabney 
Carr provided for 
committees of correspondence between the several col- 
onies. From this point it was but a short step to a 
permanent Continental Congress. 

82. The Reception of the Tea Ships. That step was 
soon to be taken, for, at length, the king had found an 
opportunity for " trying the question " with America. 
Thus far, the Americans had successfully resisted him, 
and got rid of all the duties except on tea. As for tea, 
they had plenty, but not from England ; they smuggled 
it from Holland in spite of custom houses and search 
warrants. Clearly, unless they could be made to buy tea 
from England and pay the duty on it, George III. must 
own himself defeated. Since it appeared that they 
could not be forced into doing this, it remained to be 
seen if they could be tricked into doing it. A truly 
ingenious scheme was devised. Tea sent by the East 

1 From the Magazine of American History, vol. xi. 



CAPITOL AT WILLIAMSBURG, VA. 1 



§82. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 201 

India Company to America had always paid a duty in 
some British port on the way. This duty was now taken 
off, and this made the Company's tea so cheap that the 
American merchant could buy a pound of it, and pay the 
threepence duty beside, for less than it cost him to smug- 
gle a pound of tea from Holland. It was supposed that 
the Americans would, of course, buy the tea which they 
could get most cheaply, and would thus be beguiled into 
submission to that principle of taxation which they had 
hitherto resisted. Ships laden with tea were accord- 
ingly sent, in the autumn of 1773, to Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, and Charleston ; and consignees were ap- 
pointed to receive the tea in each of these towns. 

This sending of the tea was not a commercial opera- 
tion, but simply a political trick. It was George III.'s 
way of asking the Americans, " What are you going to 
do about it ? " Such an insulting challenge merited the 
reception which it got. In the three other cities, the 
consignees of the tea were browbeaten into resigning 
their commissions, but in Boston they refused to resign, 
and so it was in Boston that the issue was tried. The 
chief manager of the affair was Samuel Adams. When 
the ships arrived, they were anchored under guard of a 
committee of citizens ; if they were not unloaded within 
twenty days, the custom house officers were empowered 
by law to seize them and unload them by force ; and 
having once come into port, they could not" legally go 
out to sea without a clearance from the collector or 
a pass from the governor. The situation was thus a 
difficult one, but it was grandly met. In an earnest 
and prayerful spirit, the advice of all the towns in 
Massachusetts was sought, and the response was unani- 
mous that the tea must on no account whatever be 
landed. Similar expressions of opinion came from other 



202 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



colonies, and Samuel Adams knew 
well that he was backed by the pub- 
lic opinion of the whole continent. 
Town meetings were held, and the 
owner of the ships was told to take 
them away without unloading ; but 
the collector contrived to fritter away 
the time until the nineteenth day, 
and then refused a clearance. On 
the next day, the 
1 6th of JDecem- 
ber, 1773, seven 
■. ---- thousand people 
were assembled 
in town meeting 
in and around 
the Old South 
Meeting-House, 
while the owner 
of the ships was 
sent out to the 
governor at his 
country house 
to ask for a pass. 
It was nightfall 
when he re- 
turned without 
it, and there was then but one thing to be done. By sun- 
rise next morning, the revenue officers would board the 
ships and unload their cargoes, the consignees would go 

1 The first church built upon this spot was a wooden one, finished in 
1669. Some of the most notable political meetings in the reign of Charles 
II. were held in it, and it figured conspicuously in the stormy days of An- 
dros. The present brick building, shown in the picture, was put up in 
1729, and is still standing. Since 1879 ^ nas Deen used as a lecture-room 
and museum for teaching American history. 




THE OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE. 1 



§§ 82, 83. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 2C*3 

to the custom house and pay the duty, and thus the 
king's audacious scheme would be crowned with suc- 
cess. The only way to prevent such a wicked result 
was to rip open the tea chests and spill their contents 

into the sea, and this was done, according to a __■ _ 

' ' , ° The Bos- 

preconcerted plan, and without the slightest ton Tea 

uproar or disorder, by a small party of men 
disguised as Indians ; among them were some of the 
best of the townsfolk. This affair has sometimes been 
thoughtlessly spoken of as a riot, but nothing could 
have been less like a riot. It was the deliberate act of 
the commonwealth of Massachusetts, the only available 
and proper reply to the king's insulting challenge. It 
was hailed with delight throughout the thirteen colonies, 
and there is nothing in all our history of which an edu- 
cated American should feel more proud. 

83. Lexington and Concord. It was a formal defi- 
ance to the king, and was so accepted. In spite of ear- 
nest opposition, the king managed to get retaliatory acts 
passed by Parliament, in April, 1774. .One of , 

these acts shut up the port of Boston until the retaliatory 
people should be starved and frightened into 
paying for the tea that had been thrown overboard. By 
another act, the charter of Massachusetts was annulled, 
and a military governor appointed with despotic power 
like Andros. This new governor, Thomas Gage, had 
for some years been commander of the regular troops in 
America. He assumed command over Massachusetts 
on the 1st of June, 1774, but his authority was never 
"recognized. Courts were prevented from sitting, no 
money was paid into Gage's treasury, and he was in 
every way ignored. 

The other colonies all showed sympathy with Massa- 
chusetts, and a Continental Congress met at Philadel- 



204 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



phia, in September. This Congress drew up a Declara- 
_,. _ tion of Rights, and sent it to the king. The 

The Con- ° ° 

tinentai people of Massachusetts formed a Provincial 
Congress, with John Hancock for its president, 
and began organizing provincial troops, and collecting 
military stores at Concord and other inland towns. In 
April, 1775, Gage received orders to arrest John Han- 
cock and Samuel Adams, and send them over to Eng- 
land to be tried for 
treason. On the 18th 
of April, these gentle- 
men were staying at a 




friend's house in 
Lexington ; and 
Gage that even- 
ing sent out from 
Boston a force of 
800 men to seize 
the military stores 
at Concord, with 
instructions to 
stop on the way 
at Lexington and 
arrest Adams and 
Hancock. But his plan was detected, and Paul Re- 

, . vere galloped on far in advance of the sol- 

Lexington . 
and Con- diers, shouting the news at every house that 

he passed. At sunrise, the soldiers found a 

party of armed yeomanry drawn up in military array 



BOSTON AND NEIGHBORHOOD IN 1 775. 



§§ 83, 84. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 205 

on Lexington Common. One of the British officers, 
Major Pitcairn, ordered them to disperse, and as they 
remained motionless, the soldiers fired, killing seven 
men. This event was the beginning of the Revolution- 
ary War. 

Before sunset, there was more fighting than the Brit- 
ish had bargained for. By the time they reached Con- 
cord most of the stores had been removed. In a sharp 
skirmish the troops were defeated, and as they marched 
back toward Boston, hundreds of farmers came swarm- 
ing upon them, firing from behind walls and trees after 
the Indian fashion. Militia from twenty-three townships 
joined in the pursuit. The British lost nearly 300 men, 
and though heavily reinforced, narrowly escaped capture. 
The alarm spread like wildfire through New England. 
Within three days, Israel Putnam and Benedict Arnold 
had come from Connecticut, and John Stark from New 
Hampshire, and Governor Gage was besieged in Boston 
by 16,000 yeomanry. ^*** 

84. The Battle of Bunker Hill. Now that guns had 
been fired, the Americans were quick to return the 
offensive. On the 10th of May, the fortresses at Ti- 
conderoga and Crown Point, commanding the line of 
communication between New York and Canada, were sur- 
prised and captured by men from the Green Mountains 
and Connecticut Valley under Ethan Allen and 
Seth Warner. On that same day, a second second 
Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, and a i Con- 
chose for its president that John Hancock whom gress ' 
the British commander-in-chief was under orders to ar- 
rest and send to England. Congress assumed the direc- 
tion of the force besieging Boston, and called for recruits 
from Virginia and the middle colonies to strengthen 
it. Henceforth, it was known as the Continental army, 



206 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X 

and Congress appointed George Washington to com- 
mand it. 

While these things were going on, reinforcements for 
the British had landed in Boston, making their army 
10,000 strong. With these troops came William Howe, 
who was to supersede Gage in the chief command. The 
British now prepared to occupy the heights in Charles- 
town known as Breed's and Bunker's Hills. These 
heights commanded Boston, so that hostile batteries 
placed there would make it necessary for the British to 
evacuate the town. The Americans learned what was 
going on, and, on the night of June 16, they seized the 
heights for themselves and began fortifying Breed's Hill. 
It was an exposed position for the American force, which 
might easily have been cut off and captured if the British 
had gone around by sea and occupied Charlestown Neck 
in the rear. But instead of this, the British prepared to 
storm the American works. In two desperate assaults, 
on the afternoon of the 17th, they were repulsed with 
the loss of one third of their number. The third assault 
Defeat of was success fulj but on ty because the American 
the AmeriT supply of powder gave out. Among the slain 
Bunker was General Joseph Warren, one of the noblest 

tt:ii 

of American patriots. The slaughter was ter- 
rible, considering the small size of the armies. Although 
the Americans were defeated, the moral effect of the 
battle was in their favor. For, if the British were to go 
on encountering such resistance, it was clear that they 
would come to the end of their resources long before 
they could subdue the revolted colonies. 

Washington arrived in Cambridge on the 2d of July, 
Washing- and had his headquarters for the next nine 
American" 5 months in the stately house which was after- 
army, ward to be the home of the poet Longfellow. 
On the 3d of July, Washington took command of the 



CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 



207 




WASHINGTON'S HEADQUARTERS.* 



American army. For some time he found enough to 
occupy him in organizing and disciplining such an army. 
Meanwhile, Congress sought to avoid further bloodshed 

1 From a recent photograph. This famous house, the finest of the noble 
colonial mansions on Brattle Street, Cambridge, was built by Colonel John 
Vassall, in 1759. Early in 1775, Colonel Vassall left it and joined the 
British in Boston ; his estate was then confiscated. General Washington 
occupied the house from July, 1775, until after the capture of Boston, 
March, 1776. 

In later times, this house has been the home of the historian Jared 
Sparks, the orator Edward Everett, and the dictionary maker Dr. 
Worcester. In 1837, it became the home of the poet Longfellow, and it 
is now (1894) occupied by his eldest daughter. The room at the extreme 
right of the picture, on the first floor, was Washington's office and Long- 
fellow's study. 

My own house, in which this School History has been written, stands 
upon the same estate, a little to the rear of the extreme left of the 
picture. 



208 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. X. 



by making one more candid statement of the case in the 
form of a petition to the king. This paper reached Lon- 
don in August, but the king refused to receive it. His 
only reply was a proclamation calling for troops to put 
down the rebellion in America. Finding that English- 
men generally were unwilling to volunteer in a war for 
that purpose, he hired about 20,000 German troops from 
the Duke of Brunswick, the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, 

and other petty 
princes. 

Nothing went 
further to enrage 
the Americans 
and urge them 
forward to a dec- 
laration of inde- 
pendence than 
this hiring of for- 
eigners to fight 
against them. 

85. The Inva- 
sion of Canada. 
Congress an- 

swered by invad- 
ing Canada. This 
was to prevent the 
governor of Canada, Sir Guy Carleton, from invading 
New York. Two lines of invasion were adopted by the 
Americans. Richard Montgomery, with 2,000 men, de- 
scended Lake Champlain and captured Montreal ; while 
Benedict Arnold, with 1,200 men, made a wonderful 

1 From a photograph. The inscription on the stone reads : " Under 
this tree Washington first took command of the American army, July 3, 
1775." The tree is believed to be three hundred years old. 




WASHINGTON ELM. 1 



§§ 85, 86. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 20Q 

march through the primeval wilderness of Maine and 
reached Quebec. Presently, the two commanders joined 
forces, and, on the last night of 1775, made a desperate 
assault upon Quebec. They forced their way into the 
town, but Montgomery was killed and Arnold disabled, 
and the assault was finally repulsed. Reinforcements 
arrived for Carleton, so that, by June, 1776, the Ameri- 
cans had been driven back out of Canada, and Carleton 
resumed his preparations for invading New York. 

While these things were going on, the British were 
driven from Boston. In March, General Washington 
occupied Dorchester Heights, and compelled them to 
evacuate the town. Howe sailed away to Halifax, where 
he made ready for an expedition against the city of New 
York. Late in April, Washington moved to New York 
and prepared to defend the city. 

86. The Declaration of Independence. At the time 
of the battle of Bunker Hill very few Americans looked 
forward to any such thing as separation from Great 
Britain. But as it became more and more clearly impos- 
sible to come to any understanding with George III., 
the sentiment in favor of independence grew rapidly 
from month to month. In the course of the winter 
there was fighting in North Carolina between the Tories 
and the revolutionary party, in which the former were 
totally defeated. Lord Dunmore, the royal governor of 
Virginia, was driven out of the state, and the British 
fleet upon which he took refuge burned the town of Nor- 
folk. Several of the colonies made for themselves new 
state governments. 

At length, in June, the motion was made in Congress 
" that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to 
be, free and independent states, that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 



2IO 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch.X. 



political connection between them and the state of 
Lee's fa- Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis- 
do°nL mo solved." The motion was made by Richard 
Congress. Henry Lee, of Virginia, and seconded by John 
Adams, of Massachusetts. It was carried, on July 2, and 




STATE HOUSE AT PHILADELPHIA.! 

the Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas 

Jefferson, was adopted July 4. 

The same peal of bells which celebrated the declara- 
tion welcomed the news of a victory in the 
South. Sir Henry Clinton had conducted an 
expedition against Charleston. But Colonel 

William Moultrie had built on Sullivan's Island, in the 

1 This view of the old State House is taken from the Columbian Maga- 
zine, July, 1787. The building is now known as Independence Hall. It 
was built in 1729-34. Here the Declaration of Independence was adopted ; 
and here, in 1787, from May to September, sat the Convention which 
framed the Constitution of the United States. 



A victory 
in the 

South. 



§86. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 211 

harbor, a low-lying fortress of palmetto logs ; and, on the 
28th of June, when the British fleet tried to pass in, it 
was terribly cut up by the guns of the fortress, which 




suffered but little in return. The British retired from 
the scene, and it was more than two years before they 
made any further attempts upon South Carolina. 

topics and questions. 
76. Causes of III Feeling between England and her Col- 
onies. 

1. What was the European idea of a colony, and of its object ? 

2. What erroneous notions about trade existed ? 

3. What was the main object of the laws regulating trade ? 

1 From the engraving in Moultrie's own book, Memoirs of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, New York, 1802, 2 vols. 



212 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

4. How were the colonists restricted in trade in respect (a) to 
the countries with which trade was permissible, {b) to the 
ships employed, (c) to manufacturing, and (d) to the traffic 



in grain 



5. What happened in spite of these restrictive laws ? 

6. What was a writ of assistance, and what its purpose ? 

7. What was a special search warrant ? 

8. What was a general search warrant ? 

9. What was the point to be decided in the case of the writs 

of assistance ? 
10. What was the decision, and what things were done as a 
result ? 
yj. The Need of a Federal Union. 

1. One great difficulty in carrying on the French wars. . 

2. An account of Franklin. 

3. Franklin's Plan of Union. 

4. Speculations about the Albany Plan. 

5. The attitude of the people toward this Plan. 

78. The Stamp Act Passed and Repealed. 

1. The kind of government needed by the colonies. 

2. How Parliament sought to establish such a government. 

3. The nature of a stamp tax. 

4. Why a Stamp Act was a novel measure in colonial history. 

5. The principle of taxation in English history. 

6. Why the colonies regarded the stamp tax as dangerous. 
7.. Two men in the front of the opposition to this tax. 

8. How the people treated the Stamp Act. 

9. Its repeal, and the reasons for it. 

79. Taxation in England. 

1. How Pitt's friendship for America offended George III. 

2. The representation of the English people in Parliament. 

3. How the representation of the people is kept fair in the 

United States. 

4. How it became unfair in England. 

5. Corrupt practices favored by this unfairness. 

6. The party of Old Whigs. 

7. The Tories, or the party of George III. 

8. The party of New Whigs, and its aims. 

9. Why George III. was so bitter against Pitt. 

10. The attitude of the king towards taxation in America. 

11. The people of England not our enemies. 



Ch. X. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 213 

80. A New Scheme for Taxing America. 

1. The imposition of port duties. 

2. The use proposed for the money thus raised. 

3. The effect of the new measure upon the colonists. 

4. Lord North's relations to the king. 

5. How the colonists met the Townshend acts. 

6. The circular letter and the king's demand. 

7. How the king's demand was treated. 

8. The Cradle of Liberty. 

9. British regulars to enforce the Townshend acts. 
10. Bloodshed, and the withdrawal of the troops. 

81. The Widening of the Breach. 

1. Certain duties repealed, and the reason. 

2. An exception made, and the reason. 

3. Disturbances in North Carolina and Rhode Island. 

4. The salaries of judges in Massachusetts. 

5. Town committees of correspondence. 

6. Colonial committees of correspondence. 

82. The Reception of the Tea Ships. 

1. The duty on tea resisted. 

2. A scheme to overcome this resistance. 

3. The sending of tea ships, in 1 773, a political trick. 

4. How three cities treated the consignees. 

5. The difficulty of the Boston situation. 

6. A great town meeting, and the occasion for it. 

7. An Indian tea party. 

8. The affair not a riot. 

83. Lexington and Concord. 

1. Two of the king's retaliatory acts. 

2. The work of two congresses. 

3. Two objects of the expedition to Lexington and Concord. 

4. The beginning of the Revolutionary War. 

5. The Concord fight, and the retreat. 

6. The spreading of the alarm. 

84. The Battle of Bunker Hill. 

1. British fortresses captured. 

2. The Continental Congress, and its action. 

3. Why the Americans seized Breed's Hill. 

4. The battle of Bunker Hill. 

5. The moral effect of the battle. 

6. The American army and Washington. 



214 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. X. 

7. A final attempt to avoid further bloodshed. 

8. The hiring of foreign troops. 

85. The Invasion of Canada. 

1. What was the object of the invasion? 

2. What route was adopted by Montgomery? 

3. What route was adopted by Arnold? 

4. Describe the assault upon Quebec. 

5. What went on meanwhile at Boston? 

86. The Declaration of Independence. 

1. Separation from Great Britain at first not expected. 

2. Growth of the sentiment for independence. 

3. Lee's famous motion in Congress. 

4. The Declaration of Independence. 

5. A victory in the South. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

The figures in parenthesis refer to pages in Fiske's The Ameri- 
can Revolution, vol. i. 

1. What was the feeling of the colonists before the Revolution 

toward the mother country (2) ? 

2. Why was it natural for the royal governors to irritate the col- 

onists (2, 3)? 

3. What trouble was there in Massachusetts for thirty years over 

the governor's salary (4) ? 

4. What was the British idea of union for the colonies (5) ? 

5. What was the American idea (6) ? 

6. Why is a stamp act a convenient way of raising money ? 

7. What stamp act does the United States enforce to-day ? 

8. Tell how money was raised during our Civil War by a stamp 

act. 

9. When Americans objected to being taxed by England, was it 

because they feared they might be taxed too heavily (16, 17)? 

10. How was Patrick Henry's reputation made (18)? 

11. What hand did Patrick Henry have in opposing English tax 

laws for the colonies (20) ? 

12. Was the War of the Revolution known by that name during its 

progress ? When did it become proper to use this name ? 
What is an insurrection ? A rebellion ? A revolution ? 

13. Describe Paul Revere's ride. Why has it become so famous? 

Read Longfellow's poem on this theme, and note how far it 
is true to the facts and spirit of history. 



CH. X. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS. 21 $ 

14. What was the special objection to hireling troops like the 

Hessians? Were these troops to blame for coming to 
America? Who were most to blame for their coming 
(160-162)? Read Chatham's protest against their employ- 
ment. 

15. Show the forbearance of the colonists (195, 196). 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The American Revolution, vol. i. : 

1. Sons of Liberty, 23, 24. 

2. The character of George III., 39, 40. 

3. The so-called Boston Massacre, 65-72. 

4. The famous Boston Tea Party, 82-92. 

5. Lord North's five acts for regulating American affairs, 

95-97- 

6. Lexington and Concord, 120-126. 

7. The commander-in-chief of the American army, 133-136. 

8. The battle of Bunker Hill, 136-146. 

9. The army at Cambridge, and its generals, 147-156. 
10. The battle of Fort Moultrie, 198-200. 

From Cooke's Virginia: 

1. Henry, the prophet of revolution, 378-382. 

2. His famous resolutions, 384-387. 

3. Williamsburg, the heart of the rebellion, 396-399. 

4. Virginia and Massachusetts, 415-421. 

5. Was it the first blood of the revolution ? 422-426. 

6. Virginia arming, 427-429. 

7. Lord Dunmore and the colony gunpowder, 430-434. 

8. Dunmore driven-from Virginia, 435-437. 



CHAPTER XL 

THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 1776-1783. 

87. Fighting for the Control of the Hudson. The 

issue was now squarely joined, and must be fought out. 
The king had pushed things much further than he had 
originally intended, much further than Lord North ap- 
proved ; but now no one could expect Great Britain to 
give up her colonies without a struggle. The Ameri- 
cans also had taken ground from which it was impossi- 
ble to retreat with self-respect. The Declaration of 
Independence was felt by every one to be a bold meas- 
ure. Now that independence was claimed, it remained 
to be seen whether it could be won. 

Here the Americans had one great advantage. They 
were on the defensive ; the British must either conquer 
the United States or give up the case. So long as the 
Americans could keep up their armed resistance, a few 
British victories would not decide the matter. 

There were two ways in which it might be possible 
to conquer the United States. The British tried first 
one way and then the other, and so the war after the 
Declaration of Independence may be divided i ito two 
periods. The first period was rather more than a year 
and a quarter in length, the second lasted exactly four 
years. 

During the first period, the British tried to conquer 
and hold the line of the Hudson River. This would be 
the most direct and speedy way of settling the busi- 



§87- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



217 



ness. The British had full control of the sea, so that 
it was impossible for American troops to go 
from one state to another by water. So by of the 
holding the Hudson River, the British would son '* 
cut off all communication between New England and 
the rest of the country. 

There were two ways of attacking the Hudson, from 
above and from below ; the British tried both ways at 
once. In the autumn of 1776, General Carleton, with 
his army in boats, under convoy of a stout little fleet, 
came up Lake Champlain to attack Ticonderoga. On 




BATTERY AND BOWLING GREEN IN 1 7/6. 1 

October u, he encountered Benedict Arnold in an ob- 
stinate naval fight off Valcour Island. Arnold was 
worsted, but escaped with his vessels, and Carleton was 
so badly damaged that he soon turned about and went 
back to winter quarters at Montreal. 

But it was at the mouth of the Hudson River that 

1 From the Manual of the Common Council of New York, 1858, where 
a full description of Bowling Green may be found. 



2l8 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



the British struck their heaviest blows. As the city of 
• . New York stands on an island, it was impossi- 

The city x 

of New ble for the Americans to hold it without corn- 
York 

mand of the water. It would, nevertheless, be 

most unwise to surrender it without a struggle. If you 
cannot beat the enemy, it is always worth while in war 
to use up his time and fritter away his energies. No 
general ever understood this better than Washington. 
In order to hold the city of New York, it was necessary 
to hold Brooklyn Heights ; there Putnam had 5,000 
men behind intrenchments, while 4,000 more, under 
Sullivan, guarded the roads approaching the Heights 
from the south. General Howe had 25,000 men en- 
camped on Staten Is- 
land, and his brother, 
Lord Howe, with a 
resistless fleet, com- 
manded all the waters 
within reach. 

On the 27th of 
August, Howe at- 
tacked Sullivan with 
20,000 men. With 
his great superiority 
of force he was able 
to surround the Amer- 
icans and take more 
than 1,000 prisoners, 
including General 

Sullivan. If Howe 
had at once attacked 
the works on Brooklyn Heights, he would probably 
have met with a bloody defeat ; but Bunker Hill had 

1 From Murray's History of the Present War, London, 1780, i. 280. 




SIR WILLIAM HOWE. 1 



§§ 8 7 , 88. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



219 



taught him a lesson, and he determined to besiege the 
place instead of assaulting it. When Washing- a skillful 
ton perceived this intention, he withdrew the retreat - 
army, taking it across the East River one dark, foggy 
night, in such boats and 
scows as he could col- 
lect. This skillful re- 
treat, under the very 
nose of the enemy, was 
a wonderful achieve- 
ment. Howe crossed 
the river a few days 
later, occupied the city 
of New York, and at- 
tacked Washington's 
centre at Harlem 
Heights, but was de- 
feated. Howe spent 
the next two months 
in vainly trying to get 
Washington to fight in 
an unfavorable position. 
October 29, the British 

great cost of life. A little later, November 16, 
they attacked Fort Washington, on the Hud- 
son River, and took it by storm. The American garri- 
son of 3,000 men were taken prisoners. This disaster 
was due entirely to disregard of Washington's orders. 
In spite of it, the Americans were still fairly capable of 
holding their own against the enemy, when a sudden 
treachery in their camp came near bringing down ruin 
upon them. 

88. From Hackensack to Morristown. The highest 

1 From Murray's History of the Present War, ii. 96. 




LORD howe.i 

In one battle, at White Plains, 
gained a slight advantage at 



Fort Wash- 
ington. 



220 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



officer in the army next to Washington was a British 
Charles adventurer named Charles Lee, who had served 
in America in the French War, and since then 
had roamed about Europe doing a little fighting and a 
good deal of scurrilous writing. About the time that 
the tea ships were sent to Boston, Lee came over to 
America to seek his fortune. He talked so much 
about his military experience that people took him for 

a great general. He 
tried to get Con- 
gress to appoint him 
to the chief com- 
mand of the army, 
and was much dis- 
gusted at having to 
serve under Wash- 
ington. After the 
capture of Fort 
Washington, in No- 
vember, i Jj6, Lee 
was in command of 
half the army, about 
7,000 men, at North- 
castle, on the east 
side of the Hudson, 
while Washington, 
with the other half, was at Hackensack, on the west 
side. It soon became apparent that Howe intended to 
move against Philadelphia. Then Washington ordered 
Lee to cross the river and join him, so that he might 
face the enemy with his full force of 14,000. Lee dis- 
obeyed, and wrote letters to several prominent persons 
slandering Washington. 

1 From Murray's History of the Present War, i. 478. 




CHARLES LEE. 1 



§88. 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



!2I 



Lee's disobedience made it necessary for Washington 
to retreat through New Jersey and cross the Delaware 
River into Penn- 
sylvania. When 
everybody con- 
sidered Washing- 
ton ruined, Lee 
marched his own 
force to Morris- 
town, apparently 
to conduct a cam- 
paign on his own 
account. But he 
had scarcely ar- 
rived there when 
a party of British 
dragoons caught 
him in his night- 
gown and slippers, 
at a tavern outside 
his army lines, and 
carried him away 
a prisoner. He 
was taken to New 
York and con- 




THE CENTRAL FIELD OF WAR, 1776-77. 



fined in the City Hall. He then turned traitor to the 
American cause, and gave General Howe all the informa- 
tion in his power, to help him to overcome General Wash- 
ington. Nobody knew about this treason of Charles 
Lee till long afterward ; the papers which prove it were 
discovered a few years ago in England, in the private 
library of Howe's secretary, where they had lain undis- 
turbed for nearly ninety years. 

The capture of Lee left Sullivan in command of his 



222 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



force, and Sullivan marched it hastily to Washington's 
assistance. Thus reinforced in the nick of time, Wash- 
ington was able to strike back at the enemy. On 
Christmas night, he crossed the Delaware with 2,500 
men, marched nine miles in a blinding snowstorm, and 
Battle of surprised and broke the British centre at Tren- 
Trenton. ton, taking 1,000 prisoners. Lord Cornwallis, 
who thought the war was over, and had sent his trunks 
on board ship, intending to return to England, now came 
in haste to attack Washington, who had brought his full 
force back into New Jersey. In the early morning of 
January 3, by a wonderful manoeuvre, Washington 
Battle of marched his army around Cornwallis's flank, 
Princeton. cms hed his rear in a sharp fight at Princeton, 
and then planted himself upon the heights of Morristown. 
This position, by threatening the British line of supplies, 

kept them from crossing 
New Jersey to take Phila- 
delphia, and for the next 
five months they stayed 
quietly in New York. 

The result of the fight- 
ing and manoeuvring 
from Long Island to Mor- 
ristown showed the world 
that the Americans were 
commanded by military 
genius of the highest 
order. The French were 
beginning to think it 
might be worth their while to help us, and thus get re- 
venged upon the British for the last war. One brilliant 
young Frenchman, not yet twenty years old, the Marquis 

1 From the London Magazine, June, 1781. 




LORD CORNWALLIS. 1 



§§ 88, 8 9 . 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



223 



de Lafayette, could not wait for his own government to 
act, but fitted up a ship at his own expense, 
and, coming to America, offered his services to 
Congress as a volunteer without pay. Other European 
officers who rendered eminent services to the Ameri- 
can cause were the 
German Kalb and 
the two noble Poles, 
Kosciuszko and Pu- 
laski. 

89. The Second 
Attempt to Con- 
quer New York. 
The British plan, 
for the summer of 
1777, was to move 
with three armies 
at once, as fol- 
lows : (1) A force 
of about 9,000 men 
was to come down 
from Canada by way of Lake Champlain, and move upon 
Albany; the command of this movement was Thethree 
intrusted to General John Burgoyne, an excel- British 
lent gentleman, who, but for his misfortunes, 
would have been remembered as a playwriter rather 
than as a soldier. (2) A force of about 2,000 men, under 
Colonel Barry St. Leger, was to ascend the St. Lawrence 
to Lake Ontario, then land at Oswego, and come down 
the Mohawk valley. Sir William Johnson had lately 
died, but his son, Sir John Johnson, had great influence 
with the Six Nations. The object of St. Leger's expe- 
dition was to enlist the aid of these Tories and Indians, 

1 From Etrennes Nationales, 1790. 




IS DE LAFAYETTE. 1 



224 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 




JOHN BURGOYNE.1 

always depend upon his ships 
goyne and St. Leger 
it was a very danger- 
ous business, because 
they were required to 
plunge through the 
depths of the wilder- 
ness with the risk of 
having their supplies 
cut off. After Bur- 
goyne should pass Fort 
Edward on the Hud- 
son, he was sure to 
be in extreme peril 
until he should meet 
Howe with the force 
from below. But the British 



crush out all opposition, 
and move on to unite 
with Burgoyne. (3) A 
force of not less than 
1 8,000 men, under 
Howe, was to move up 
the Hudson River and 
unite with Burgoyne. 
Should Washington fol- 
low, the concentrated 
British force might be 
expected to crush him. 

In this plan, Howe's 

task was comparatively 

safe, because he could 

for supplies. But for Bur- 




PHILIP SCHUYLER. 2 

underestimated the danger. 



1 From Stone's Campaign of Lieut.-Gen. John Burgoyne. 

2 From the Life of Hamilton, by J. C. Hamilton. 



§8 9 - 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



225 



On the 5th of July, Burgoyne compelled the Ameri- 
cans to evacuate Ticonderoga, and two days later a 
detachment of his army defeated them in a severe bat- 
tle at Hubbardton. These misfortunes caused great 
alarm throughout the country, but as Burgoyne ad- 
vanced toward Fort Edward his difficulties began. The 
Americans were commanded 
by Philip Schuyler, a skillful 
general and one of the noblest 
of patriots. By felling trees 
and otherwise obstructing the 
enemy's march, Schuyler so 
delayed him that he did not 
reach Fort Edward till the 
end of July. By that time, 
several hundred New Eng- 
land yeomanry were collected 
in the Green Mountains with 
the village of Ben- „ , , 

° Battle of 

nington as a depot Benning- 
of supplies. • Bur- 
goyne sent out a force of 
1,000 men to capture these 
supplies. The force con- 
sisted chiefly of Germans, 
utterly ignorant of the coun- 
try as well as of American 
methods of warfare. On 
the 1 6th of August, they 

were entrapped, surrounded, and captured by the saga- 
cious Colonel John Stark. About 200 Germans were 
killed and wounded, about 70 returned to Burgoyne, and 

1 After a silhouette given in Rev. Albert Tyler's Bennington, the Battle, 
*777 i Centennial Celebration, 1877. 




226 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 




all the rest were 
taken prisoners, 
with all their 
guns and stores. 
The American 
loss was 14 killed 
and 42 wounded. 
This brilliant vic- 
tory prepared the 
Americans to 
send forces into 
Burgoyne's rear 
and cut off his 
communications 
with Lake Cham- 
plain. 

90. St. Leger's 
Army in the For- 
est. Meanwhile, 
St. Leger's little 
J army was having 

strange and wild adventures in the primeval forest. In 
what is now Oneida County, near the site of Rome, there 
was a stronghold called Fort Stanwix. St. Leger, ad- 
vancing from Oswego, laid siege to this fort, on the 3d 
of August. On the 6th, a force of 800 militia, led by 
General Nicholas Herkimer, was marching to relieve the 

1 After a picture belonging to the Earl of Warwick, painted by G. 
Romney. The spelling Brandt is incorrect. His Indian name, as he 
wrote it, was Thayendanegea, pronounced Ta-yen-da-naw'-ga. He was 
the most remarkable Indian known in history. He was a full-blood 
Mohawk, not a half-breed as is sometimes incorrectly said. He was well 
educated, a devout member of the Episcopal Church, and translated the 
Prayer Book and parts of the New Testament into the Mohawk language. 
The combination of missionary and war-chief in him was quite curious. 



fa/3r<w^f 



§90. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 227 

fort, when, in a deep ravine near Oriskany, they fell 
into an ambush prepared by the great Mohawk Battle of 
chieftain, Joseph Brant. The battle which en- ° riskan y- 
sued was the fiercest and most obstinate battle in the 
Revolutionary War. Each side could claim the victory. 
Herkimer, mortally wounded, drove the enemy away, 
but was obliged to retreat from the scene. That same 
day, the garrison at Fort Stanwix made a sortie and 
sacked a part of St. Leger's camp, capturing five Brit- 
ish flags. They hoisted these flags upside down over 
their fort and raised above them a rude flag made of 
scraps of a blue jacket and a white shirt The 
with some bits of red flannel. Congress had national 
in June adopted the national banner of stars 
and stripes, and this was the first time it was ever 
hoisted. 

When the news of Oriskany reached General Schuy- 
ler, he sent Arnold with 1,200 men to relieve Fort Stan- 
wix. Arnold caused reports to be sent ahead of him that 
Burgoyne was totally defeated, and that a great Ameri- 
can force was coming against St. Leger. On August 
22, these rumors produced a panic in the British camp, 
and St. Leger hastily retreated to Lake Ontario. This 
was a heavy blow to Burgoyne. All his hopes of aid from 
the Tories of the Mohawk valley were completely frus- 
trated, while Schuyler's force in front of him was daily 
increased by fresh bands of armed yeomanry. 

Some New England delegates in Congress cherished a 
mean grudge against Schuyler, and succeeded Horatio 
in removing him from command and put- Gates " 
ting Horatio Gates in his place. Gates was a vain and 
silly person, with no military ability ; but when he took 
command, August 19, Burgoyne's fate was already 
almost settled. His communications with Canada were 



228 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



about to be cut by the Vermont forces, and then no- 
thing could save him except a British army coming up 
the Hudson River. 




EVOLUTION OF THE AMERICAN FLAG.l 

1 The flag on the right is the British union jack, a combination of the 
English red cross of St. George with the Scottish white cross of St. 
Andrew, upon a blue ground. The British ensign is a plain red flag with 
this union jack in the corner. 

The flag on the left is the one used by General Washington, at Cam- 
bridge, in January, 1776, and for a year or more afterward. It is like the 
British ensign except that thirteen red and white stripes are substituted 
for the solid red of the former. 

The flag at the top was adopted by Congress in June, 1777. A union 
of thirteen white stars in a circle on a blue ground is substituted for the 
British union. The present American flag differs from this in the num- 
ber of stars ; one has been added for each new state, so that there are 
now forty-five. 

Below this flag are shown the arms of the Washington family, with three 
red stars and two red bars on a white ground, and a Latin motto which 
means " The event justifies the deed." It has been supposed by some 
writers that the idea of the stars and stripes in the American flag was 
derived from this coat-of-arms ; but there seems to be no evidence in 
support of this opinion. 



§9'- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



22Q 



91. Aid for Burgoyne Prevented by Washington. 
It was Washington who prevented this. General Howe 
started in June to take Philadelphia, expecting to be 
able to do that, and also to give all needful aid to Bur- 
goyne. But Washington, by skillful manoeuvres, pre- 
vented Howe from crossing New Jersey, and obliged 
him to go by sea. Various delays thus occa- sh _ n 
sioned used up the whole summer. After ton delays 
Howe had sailed up Chesapeake Bay, he 

marched northward 
with 18,000 men, as 
far as the Brandywine 
Creek, where he en- 
countered Washing- 
ton, with 11,000, on 
the nth of Septem- 
ber. In the battle on 
that day, Washington 
was obliged to retire 
from the field, but the 
defeat was so slight 
that he was able to 
detain Howe for a fort- 
night on the march of 
only twenty-six miles 
to Philadelphia. . The 
British entered that 
city on the 26th, and 
presently encamped at 
Germantown, where 
Washington attacked 
them, on the 4th of 
October, at daybreak, hoping to push their army against 
the Schuylkill River and destroy it. The daring scheme 




burgoyne's campaign, 1777. 



230 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XI. 

almost succeeded, but victory was turned into defeat by 
a sudden panic among the Americans, caused by a sad 
accident : it was a foggy morning, and one American 
battalion fired into another by mistake. 

92. The Surrender of Burgoyne. Washington 
made so much trouble for Howe that the latter had 
to get more troops from New York, and so it was im- 
possible to send any help to Burgoyne. At length, a 
new force of 3,000 men, arriving from England, was 
sent up the Hudson River on the same day that the 
battle of Germantown was fought. It was too late to 
save Burgoyne. On September 13, that general had 
crossed the Hudson; on the 19th, he tried to turn the 
American position at Bemis Heights, but Arnold at- 
tacked him at Freeman's Farm near by, and a desperate 
but indecisive battle was fought there. Two days later, 
Burgoyne's communications with Lake Champlain were 
cut, and soon his men were suffering from hunger. On 
the 7th of October, he risked another battle, and was 
totally defeated by Arnold, whose leg was broken by a 
musket ball in the moment of victory. In neither of 
these two battles did Gates take any real part. Bur- 
goyne retreated upon Saratoga, where he found himself 
surrounded, and, on the 17th, he surrendered what was 
left of his army, nearly 6,000 men, to General Gates. 

93. The Results of Burgoyne's Surrender. The 
surrender of Burgoyne had immense results. Lord 
North insisted upon conciliating the Americans and 
yielding every point to them except independence. 
People in England insisted upon having Lord Chatham 
for prime minister, and the king would probably have 
Efforts for been compelled to take him, but Chatham sud- 
peace. denly died. Whether he could have succeeded 
in renewing the friendly union between Great Britain 



§§93,94- THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 23I 

and America is doubtful. Certainly no other English- 
man was equal to such a task. Lord North sent com- 
missioners to America to negotiate a treaty of peace. 
But meanwhile, for more than a year, Benjamin Frank- 
lin had been busy at the French court, soliciting aid 
and alliance ; and now, as soon as France felt that 
there was any danger of a reconciliation between Great 
Britain and America, she recognized the independence 
of the United States, and presently sent a fleet to help 
us. The treaty was signed February 6, 1778, 
and in it the Americans bound themselves to French 
accept no terms of peace until Great Britain 
should recognize the independence of the United 
States. 

This French alliance was the beginning of European 
complications which ended in bringing Spain and Hol- 
land into the war against George III., but its immediate 
results in America were not remarkable. In the spring 
of 1778, great hopes were entertained. The valley 
winter, which Washington's army spent at For s e - 
Valley Forge, had been one of privation and suffering. 
There had been an intrigue against Washington on the 
part of several officers and politicians who tried to hurt 
his feelings and goad him into resigning his command, 
in which case they intended to put the weak-minded 
Gates in his place. This conspiracy, known from the 
name of one of the plotters as the " Conway Cabal," 
was exposed in such a way as to make them all ridicu- 
lous and to strengthen people's confidence in Wash- 
ington. 

94. Cessation of Active Operations in the North. 
In the spring, Howe went home to England, and Sir 
Henry Clinton succeeded him. Hearing of the ap- 
proach of the French fleet, Clinton evacuated Philadel- 



232 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XL 



Battle of 
Mon- 
mouth. 

chief. 



phia and retired to New York. Washington pursued 
him across New Jersey. His army had been thoroughly 
drilled at Valley" Forge by the Baron von Steuben, a 
very able Prussian officer who had come over to help 
us. With this improved army, Washington overtook 
the enemy at Monmouth and ordered an attack. • But, 
unfortunately, the mischief-maker, Charles 
Lee, had been exchanged, and had returned to 
his command just in time to make more mis- 
He spoiled Washington's plan by making a 

shameful and dis- 
orderly retreat just 
at the critical mo- 
ment. For this he 
was tried by court- 
martial ; at first he 
was suspended from 
command, then ex- 
pelled from the army. 
When the French 
fleet arrived, Wash- 
ington hoped to be 
able to take the city 
of New York, but 
some of the ships 
baron von steuben.i drew too much water 

to cross the bar, so this scheme had to be abandoned. 
The only other place occupied by a large British force 
was Newport, and the fleet accompanied Sullivan's land 
forces in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Newport. 
Little more was done in the northern states between 
the regular armies. In the summer of 1779, Clinton 
sent marauding expeditions into Connecticut in order 

* From Du Simitiere's Thirteen Portraits, London, 1783. 




94, 95- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



?33 




to draw Washington's attention away from the Hudson 
River. But Washington, who always did what the 
enemy did not expect, pro- 
tected Connecticut by storm- 
ing the British works stony 
at Stony Point. The Point 
assault, which was one of the 
most brilliant in military his- 
tory, was conducted by An- 
thony Wayne. The loss of 
this fort made Clinton call 
back his marauders without 
delay. 

95. Conflicts on the Fron- 
tier and at Sea. In the 
years 1778 and 1779, there ANIHONY WAYNE - 1 

was constant warfare with Tories and Indians on the 
frontier. In July, 1778, these enemies spread death and 
desolation through the beautiful valley of Wyoming, in 
Pennsylvania. Many other atrocities were committed, 

and the next year an 
army under Sullivan 
invaded the country 
of the Six Nations, 
defeated the Tories 
and Indians with great 
slaughter, and burned 
more than forty vil- 
lages. The Six Na- 
tions never recovered 

CAMPAIGN OF GEORGE ROGERS CLARK. from this blow 

In the Southwest, the famous hunter, Daniel Boone, 
had begun the settlement of Kentucky, while James Rob- 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. i. 




234 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



Frontier 
troubles. 



ertson was moving into Tennessee, and there was much 
righting with the tribes in those parts. In 
1778, Colonel Hamilton, the British com- 
mander at -Detroit, tried to stir up all the western 

tribes to a concerted attack 
upon the frontier. A 
young Virginian, George 
Rogers Clark, hearing of 
this, undertook to carry the 
war into the enemy's coun- 
try. In two romantic and 
masterly campaigns, in 
1778-79, he defeated and 
captured Hamilton at Vin- 
cennes, and ended by con- 
quering and holding the 
whole country north of the 
Ohio River, from the Alle- 
ghanies to the Mississippi. 
The year 1779 was also famous for the exploits of 
our bold naval captain, Paul Jones, who burned the ship- 
„ , T pins: in British ports, sailed into the Frith of 

Paul Jones. r & f ' 

Forth and threatened Edinburgh, and finally 
captured two British war vessels off Flamborough Head, 
in one of the most desperate sea fights on record. 

96. The Second Way of Conquering the Country. 
In this last period of the war, after Burgoyne's sur- 
render, the British tried a new way of conquering the 
United States. Instead of aiming at the centre, they 
went down to the extreme South, and tried cutting off 
one state after another. They conquered Georgia and 
reinstated the royal governor there. In the autumn of 

1 After the medal struck in his honor by the United States Congress, 
to commemorate his victory over the Serapis. 




PAUL JONES. 1 



§§ 96, 97- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



235 



1 779, General Lincoln, aided by the French fleet, tried 
to recapture Savannah, but was defeated with great 
slaughter. The next spring, Sir Henry Clinton con- 
ducted an expedition against Charleston, and Fighting in 
captured the city with Lincoln and his whole the South " 
army. After this terrible blow, Clinton returned to 
New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis in command, and 
South Carolina was soon overcome by the British. 
With great exertions a new American army was col- 
lected in North Carolina, but the command of it, un- 
fortunately, was given to Gates, and, on the 16th of 
August, Cornwallis nearly destroyed it at Camden. It 
was, perhaps, the worst defeat ever inflicted upon an 
American army. After this, the only resistance to the 
British in South Carolina was carried on by the brave 
partisan leaders, such as Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. 
Irregular warfare of a cruel sort went on between Whigs 
and Tories, and robbery and 
murder were frequent. 

97. The Gloomiest Time 
of the War. This summer 
of 1780 was the gloomiest 
time in the whole course of 
the war. Because Congress 
could not tax the people, 
and could not get enough 
money from the states by 
asking for it, there was 
great difficulty in carrying 
on the war. Some money 
was borrowed from France 

and Holland, but Congress was also obliged to issue its 
notes, or promises to pay. Such notes, when issued by 

1 From Headley's Washington and his Generals, vol. ii. 




FRANCIS MARION. 1 



236 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



a government, are commonly called paper money. So 
long as government redeems them in gold they are as 
good as money. If government "suspends," or post- 
pones, giving gold for them on demand, their value 
falls ; that is, a man will give more for a gold dollar than 
a paper dollar. If people believe that government will be 
Poor able to redeem its notes, their value falls but 

money. slightly ; if they cease to have such confidence, 
the value falls terribly. Such fluctuations in the value 
of currency are very destructive to business, and always 
produce poverty and misery. It is probable that during 






IslxijV^m. NoQ<)U4. 



Is 



mt 



jjM i lMMllB^i iwi 



mmmm 



ZTfiLs Bill entitfo 
tfte Bearer to recei'ue 
iixtySpanifh mill- 
ed Dollars, or 
t/ie Value thereof in 
Gold or Silvec, ac- 
cording to a Refbki- 
tion A&Jfed tnj @on- 
%gr$fsa.tP&?de$l8&* 
* l Se/it.26t/?, 1778 




CONTINENTAL MONEY. 



the Revolutionary War more damage was done by the 
paper currency than by all other causes put together. 
In the- summer of 1780, it became worthless. It took 

1 Facsimile, full size, of a note now in the possession of Harvard Uni- 
versity Library 



§5 97, 98- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



237 



$150 in Continental currency to buy a bushel of corn, 
and an ordinary suit of clothes cost $2,000. Then peo- 
ple refused to take it ; they preferred to take their pay 
in sheep or plows, in jugs of rum, or kegs of salt pork, 
or whatever they could get. It thus became almost im- 
possible to pay soldiers, or to clothe and feed them 
properly and supply them with powder and ball. There 
were times when, except for the wonderful ability of the 
financier, Robert Morris, the war could not have been 
carried on. 

98. The Treason of Arnold. Benedict Arnold had 
for some time felt himself ill treated by Congress. He 
was one of our bravest 
and ablest generals, 
but his moral nature 
was weak. In 1778, 
having been put in 
command of Philadel- 
phia, he married a 
Tory lady, and his po- 
litical sympathies be- 
gan to change. He 
got into difficulties 
and was sentenced to 
be reprimanded (Janu- 
ary, 1780). Revenge- 
ful feelings led him to 
entertain a scheme for 
giving up the Hudson River to the enemy. In July, 
1780, he asked Washington for the command of the 
great fortress at West Point, and obtained it. The West 
Then he made arrangements for surrendering Point plot ' 
it to Sir Henry Clinton. In September, the British 
adjutant-general, Major John Andre, had an interview 

1 From Arnold's Life of Arnold. 




BENEDICT ARNOLD. 1 



238 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 




MAJOR ANDRE. 1 



with Arnold near Stony- 
Point. On his way back to 
New York, Andre was 
stopped and searched by 
three yeomen near Tarry- 
town, and, as suspicious 
looking papers in Arnold's 
handwriting were found in 
his stockings, they arrested 
him for a spy. These pa- 
pers revealed the plot. Ar- 
nold received information 
in time to escape and fly 
to the British in New 
York. Andre was tried by 
a military commission and hanged. 

99. Victories in the South. The old adage that 
"it is always darkest 
just before dawn " was 
now illustrated. Only 
five days after the exe- 
cution of Andre, there 
was a great American 
victory at the South. 
A force of 1,100 Brit- 
ish and Tories pene- 
trated too far into the 
mountains, and were 
met by a swarm of 
backwoodsmen. In the 
battle of King's Moun- 
tain, October 7, all general greene. 2 

1 From a portrait by himself. 

2 After a photograph of a painting. 




§ 99- 



THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



239 



the British who were not killed or wounded were taken 
prisoners. This was the beginning of a se- Nathanaei 
ries of victories. A new army was raised for Greene - 
the South, and put under command of Nathanaei Greene, 
a general scarcely second to Washington himself. 

Under Greene were three Virginians of great ability, 
— Daniel Morgan ; William Washington, a distant cousin 
of the commander-in-chief ; and Henry Lee, familiarly 
known as "Light-horse Harry," father of the famous 
Confederate general, Robert Edward Lee. 

The most famous British commander of light-armed 
troops was Banastre Tarleton. On the 17th of January, 
1 78 1, in the battle of the Cowpens, Tarleton was de- 
feated by Morgan. It was a wonderful piece of tactics. 
With only 900 men, in open field Morgan surrounded 
and nearly annihilated 
a superior force. The 
British lost 230 in killed 
and wounded, 600 prison- 
ers, and all their guns. 
Tarleton escaped with 
270 men. The Ameri- 
cans lost twelve killed 
and sixty-one wounded. 

This was the prelude 
to a game of strategy in 
which Greene led Corn- 
wallis on a chase across 
North Carolina, and gave 

him battle at Guilford, on March 15. At nightfall, the 
British held the field, but were so badly cut a game of 
up that they presently withdrew into Virginia, strate sy- 
while Greene returned to South Carolina. His next 




DANIEL MORGAN.! 



1 After a sketch by Trumbull. 



240 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XI. 



two battles — Hobkirk's Hill, April 25, and Eutaw 
Springs, September 8 — were not victories, but in each 
case he gained the object for which the battle was 
fought. Between those two dates he had cleared the 
British out of South Carolina, except in Charleston, 
where they remained shut up under cover of their ships, 

100. The Sur- 
render of Corn- 
wallis. Corn- 

wallis, in Virginia, 
was reinforced, 
and had a little 
campaign against 
Lafayette. At the 
end of July, Corn- 
wallis was at York- 
town with 7,000 
men. Up to this 
time the British 
had always been 
safe at the water's 
edge, because they 
controlled the sea. 
Now all this was to 
be changed by the arrival of a great French fleet com- 
manded by Count de Grasse. In August, Washington 
learned that he could have the aid of this fleet on the 
Virginia coast, and at once he moved with 
6,000 men (4,000 of them Frenchmen under 
Count Rochambeau) from the Hudson River 
to Chesapeake Bay. It was a swift and skillful move- 
ment. Clinton did not suspect its purpose till Wash- 
ington was beyond Philadelphia. Then he made a weak 
attempt at a diversion by sending the traitor Arnold 




SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS IN THE REVOLUTION. 



Washing- 
ton's skill 
ful plan. 



§ ioo. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 24T 




THE SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS. 1 

to burn New London. That wretched performance was 
of no use. Washington went straight at his mark, and, 
by the last of September, had 16,000 men in front of 
Cornwallis at Yorktown, while the great French fleet 
closed in behind and prevented escape. On the 19th 
of October, the British army surrendered. 

topics and questions. 

87. Fighting for the Control of the Hudson. 

1 . Why could neither party to the war now retreat ? 

2. What advantage did the Americans have ? 

3. Why did the British seek to control the Hudson ? 

4. What attack did they make on the Hudson from 

above ? 

5. Why did Washington try to hold New York city ? 

6. What measures did he adopt to do so ? 

7. What did the British do to dislodge him ? 

8. Describe Washington's retreat. 

1 From a painting by Trumbull in the Capitol at Washington. 



242 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XI 

9. What further attempts did Howe make to defeat Wash- 
ington ? 
10. What disaster occurred at Fort Washington? 

88. From Hackensack to Morristown. 

1. An account of Charles Lee. 

2 Lee's disobedience of Washington's orders. 

3. His capture and treason. 

4. The surprise of the British at Trenton. 

5. Cornwallis out-manoeuvred at Princeton. 

6. The strong position at Morristown. 

7. What the campaign showed to the world. 

8. Aid from Lafayette. 

89. The Second Attempt to Conquer New York. 

1. The plan of Burgoyne's army. 

2. The plan of St. Leger's army. 

3. The plan of Howe's army. 

4. The comparative risks of these plans. 

5. Burgoyne's success at first. 

6. The growing difficulties of Burgoyne's situation. - 

7. The American victory at Bennington. 

90. St. Leger's Army in the Forest. 

1. The siege of Fort Stanwix. 

2. The Mohawk ambush at Oriskany. 

3. The stars and stripes at Fort Stanwix. 

4. The relief of the besieged Americans. 

5. Gates substituted for Schuyler. • 

91. Aid for Burgoyne Prevented by Washington. 

1. Howe's scheme about Philadelphia. 

2. The scheme delayed by Washington. 

3. The battle of the Brandy wine. 

4. The battle of Germantown. 

92. The Surrender of Burgoyne. 

1. Aid for Burgoyne too late. 

2. The battle of Freeman's Farm. 

3. The second battle of Freeman's Farm. 

4. The surrender. 

93. The Results of Burgoyne's Surrender. 

1. Efforts for peace in England. 

2. The French alliance. 

3. The winter at Valley Forge. 

4. The " Conway Cabal." 



Ch. XI. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 



243 



94. Cessation of Active Operations in the North. 

1. The evacuation of Philadelphia. 

2. The drill at Valley Forge. 

3. Lee at Monmouth. 

4. Unsuccessful attempts with the French fleet. 

5. The storming of Stony Point, and its object. 

95. Conflicts on the Frontier and at Sea. 

1. The valley of Wyoming desolated. 

2. Sullivan's invasion of the country of the Six Nations. 

3. Kentucky and Tennessee. 

4. Clark's campaigns, and their object. 

5. Paul Jones in British waters. 

96. The Second Way of Conquering the Country. 

1. The nature of this second way. 

2. The campaign in Georgia. 

3. The capture of Charleston and of Lincoln's army. 

4. A new army and its fate at Camden. 

5. Partisan warfare in South Carolina. 

97. The Gloomiest Time of the War. 

1. Why was it hard for Congress to get money ? 

2. What was the nature of the paper money issued ? 

3. When is such money good ? 

4. When does it fall in value ? 

5. Speak of the damage it did in the Revolutionary War. 

6. Illustrate its worthlessness in 1780. 

98. The Treason of Arnold. 

1. Some causes for his change of feeling. 
. 2. His plot to surrender West Point. 

3. The plot discovered. 

4. What befell Arnold and Andre*. 

99. Victories in the South. 

1. The battle of King's Mountain. 

2. Greene and his generals. 

3. Tarleton's defeat at the Cowpens. 

4. Greene's campaign, and what it accomplished. 
ioq. The Surrender of Cornwallis. 

1. Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

2. The British no longer safe at the water's edge. 

3. Washington's skillful movement. 

4. Clinton's diversion. 

5. The siege and the surrender. 



244 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XL 



SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Read the Declaration of Independence, and consider the follow- 

ing questions and suggestions : 

a. Why was the Declaration made ? 

b. It says all men are created equal. Is this true ? 

c. What unalienable rights does it claim for all men ? Why 
are such rights called unalienable? Is it consistent for 
people to claim such rights, and, at the same time, to thrust 
men into prison or to hang them ? 

d. From what source are the powers of government said to 
be derived? Has everybody really given his consent to the 
government exercised over him? Do minorities living 
under laws and rulers not acceptable to them give such con- 
sent as the Declaration mentions? 

e. Mention some of the charges made against the king of 
England. It is a valuable exercise to support some of these 
charges by facts of history, with places, dates, and circum- 
stances. 

f. What pledge did the signers make ? Did they keep 
their pledges ? 

2. What was the evidence of Charles Lee's treason? (See Fiske's 

The American Revolution, i. 301-303.) 

3. Describe some of the effects in England of Burgoyne's surren- 

der. (See Fiske's The American Revohition, ii.) 

a. The consternation and differences of opinion that pre- 

vailed, 4-7. 

b. Lord North's political summersault, 7-9. 

c. The alliance of France with the United States, 9-1 1. 

d. Chatham the only hope of England, 1 2-22. 

e. Efforts for peace unavailing, 22-24. 

4. In the chapter entitled "War on the Ocean," Fiske's The Atner- 

ican Revolution, ii., find answers to the following questions ; 

a. What right of search did the British claim ? 

b. What defense of this right did the British urge ? 

c. What is meant by the doctrine that free ships make free 

goods ? 

d. How came this doctrine to triumph at last ? 

e. Show how wise the doctrine is. 

5. How many stars and stripes belong to our national banner 

to-day ? What changes has the banner undergone since its 



Ch. XI. THE WINNING OF INDEPENDENCE. 245 

adoption ? What is a national flag for ? What is the use 
of having it float over the schoolhouses of the land ? 

6. Why did Benedict Arnold turn traitor? Was he a traitor from 

the British point of view before he became one from the 
American ? 

7. Was Andre's execution justifiable ? 

8. What proofs of greatness did Washington give during the Rev- 

olution ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

From Fiske's The American Revolution, i. : 

1. Burgoyne in the wilderness, 268-274. 

2. Jenny McCrea and Burgoyne's Indian allies, 275-280, 

3. An army of regulars annihilated by farmers, 280-285. 

4. The terrible battle of Oriskany, 285-292. 

5. How one man put an army to flight, 293-296. 

6. Burgoyne's army after the surrender, 336-344. 
From Fiske's The American Revolution, ii. : 

1. Sufferings of the troops at Valley Forge, 28, 29. 

2. Steuben as a drillmaster, 53-56. 

3. Lee's treachery at Monmouth, 59-71. 

4. A remarkable Mohawk, 82-85. 

5. The massacre at Wyoming, 85-89. 

6. The wilderness beyond the Alleghanies, 94-96. 

7. Clark's conquest of the northwestern territory, 104-108. 

8. Paul Jones and the Bon Homme Richard, 1 21-130. 

9. Sumter and Marion, 183, 184. 

10. Evils of the paper currency, 197-200. 

11. The treason of Arnold, and its exposure, 215-239. 

12. The sad condition of the army in 1780, 239-243. 

13. The victory of King's Mountain, 244-248. 

14. Greene's superb strategy, 250-268. 

15. Washington's audacious scheme, 273-278. 

16. The end at Yorktown, 278-283. 

17. The news in the United States and England, 285, 286. 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 1783-17S9. 

101. Drifting toward Anarchy. When Lord North, 
at his office in London, heard the dismal news from Vir- 
ginia, he walked up and down the room, wringing his 
hands and crying, " O God, it is all over! " Yorktown 
was indeed decisive. In the course of the winter the 




MOUNT VERNON. 



British lost Georgia. The embers of Indian warfare 
Treaty of still smouldered on the border, but the great 
Pans. ^ ar £ or independence was really at an end. 

The treaty of peace was finally signed at Paris, Sept em- 



§ ioi. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 24/ 

ber 3, 1783. On November 25, the British troops sailed 
away from New York, and Washington resigned his 
commission and went home to Mount Vernon in time to 
spend Christmas there. 

By the treaty — which was negotiated on our part by 
Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams — the 
independent United States extended from the Atlantic 
coast to the Mississippi River. Florida (which then 
included parts of Alabama and Mississippi) was given 
back by Great Britain to Spain ; and Spain continued 
to hold the Louisiana territory. 

Peace was far from bringing safety and contentment 
to the United States. The same difficulty which had led 
to the Revolutionary War — want of a national govern- 
ment — still existed. During the war, the thirteen states 
had agreed upon a kind of constitution which they 
called Articles of Confederation, but they were afraid of 
conferring too much power upon Congress, lest it should 
encroach upon the state governments and swal- „, , 

1 ° Weakness 

low them up. So no power of taxation was of Con- 
given to Congress, and, as it had no money, it gress ' 
was hard for it to preserve either dignity or authority. 
For want of pay the army became troublesome. In 
January, 1781, there had been a mutiny of Pennsyl- 
vania and New Jersey troops which at one mo- Troubles 
ment looked very serious. In the spring of arm h y the 
1782, some of the officers, disgusted with the * 781-83- 
want of efficiency in the government, seem to have en- 
tertained a scheme for making Washington king : but 
Washington met the suggestion with a stern rebuke. 
In March, 1783, inflammatory appeals were made to the 
officers at the headquarters of the army at Newburgh. 
It seems to have been intended that the army should 
overawe Congress, and seize upon the government until 



248 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

the delinquent states should contribute the money 
needed for satisfying the soldiers and other public cred- 
itors. An eloquent speech from Washington prevailed 
upon the officers to reject and condemn this scheme. 

On the 19th of April, 1783, the eighth anniversary of 
Lexington, the cessation of hostilities was formally pro- 
claimed, and the soldiers were allowed to go home on 
furloughs. The army was virtually disbanded. There 
were some who thought that this ought not to be done 
while the British forces still remained in New York ; but 
Congress was afraid of the army and quite ready to see 
it scattered. On the 21st of June, Congress was driven 
from Philadelphia by a small band of drunken soldiers 
clamorous for pay. It was impossible for Congress to 
get money. Of the Continental taxes assessed in 1783, 
only one fifth part had been paid by the middle of 1785. 
After peace was made, France had no longer any end 
to gain by lending us money, and European bankers, 
as well as European governments, regarded American 
credit as dead. 

There was a double provision of the treaty which 
could not be carried out because of the weakness of 
Congress. It had been agreed that Congress should 
Congress request the state governments to repeal vari- 
f "lfiUhe ous l aws which they had made from time to 
treaty. time, confiscating the property of Tories and 
hindering the collection of private debts due from Amer- 
ican to British merchants. Congress did make such 
a request, but it was not heeded. The laws hindering 
the payment of debts were not repealed ; and as for 
the Tories, they were so badly treated that between 
1783 and 1785 more than 100,000 left the country. 
Those from the southern states went mostly to Flor- 
ida and the Bahamas ; those from the north made the 



§ ioi. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 249 

beginnings of the Canadian states of Ontario and New 
Brunswick. A good many of them were reimbursed 
for their losses by Parliament. 

When the British government saw that these pro- 
visions of the treaty were not fulfilled, it retaliated by 
refusing to withdraw its troops from the northern and 
western frontier posts. The British army Great 

sailed from Charleston on the 14th of Decern- Britain re- 
taliates, 
ber, 1782, and from New York on the 25th of presuming 

November, 1783 ; but in contravention of the weakness 

treaty small garrisons remained at Ogdens- °ngof fee1 ' 

burgh, Oswego, Niagara, Erie, Sanduskv, De- union , 

b ' to ' o > ' J> among the 

troit, and Mackinaw until the 1st of June, 1796. states. 
Besides this, laws were passed which bore very severely 
upon American commerce, and the Americans found it 
impossible to retaliate because the different states would 
not agree upon any commercial policy in common. On 
the other hand, the states began making commercial 
war upon each other, with navigation laws and high 
tariffs. Such laws were passed by New York to inter- 
fere with the trade of Connecticut, and the merchants 
of the latter state began to hold meetings and pass 
resolutions forbidding all trade whatever with New 
York. 

The old quarrels about territory were kept up, and in 
1784 the troubles in the Wyoming valley and in the 
Green Mountains came to the very verge of civil war. 
People in Europe, hearing of such things, believed that 
the Union would soon fall to pieces and become the 
prey of foreign powers. It was disorder and calamity 
of this sort that such men as Hutchinson had feared, 
in case the control of Great Britain over the colonies 
should cease. George III. looked upon it all with satis- 
faction, and believed that before long the states would 



250 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

one after another become repentant and beg to be taken 
back into the British empire. 

The troubles reached their climax in 1786. Because 
The craze there seemed to be no other way of getting 
mon P ey Pe and money, the different states began to issue their 
th b n^ ays promissory notes, and then tried to compel 
1786. people by law to receive such notes as money. 
There was a strong "paper money" party in all the 
states except Connecticut and Delaware. The most 
serious trouble was in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. 
In both states the farmers had been much impoverished 
by the war. Many farms were mortgaged, and now and 
then one was sold to satisfy creditors. The farmers 
accordingly clamored for paper money, but the mer- 
chants in towns like Boston or Providence, understanding 
more about commerce, were opposed to any such miser- 
able makeshifts. In Rhode Island the farmers prevailed. 
Paper money was issued, and harsh laws were passed 
against all who should refuse to take it at its face value. 
The merchants refused, and in the towns nearly all busi- 
ness was stopped during the summer of 1786. 

In the Massachusetts legislature the paper money 
party was defeated. There was a great outcry among 
the farmers against merchants and lawyers, and some 
were heard to maintain that the time had come for 
wiping out all debts. In August, 1 786, the malcontents 
rose in rebellion, headed by one Daniel Shays, who had 
been a captain in the Continental army. They began 
by trying to prevent the courts from sitting, and went 
on to burn barns, plunder houses, and attack the arsenal 
at Springfield. The state troops were called out under 
General Lincoln, two or three skirmishes were fought, 
in which a few lives were lost, and at length, in Febru- 
ary, 1787, the insurrection was suppressed. 



§§101,102. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 2$l 

At that time the mouth of the Mississippi River and 
the country on its western bank belonged to Spain. 
Kentucky and Tennessee were rapidly becoming settled 
by people from Virginia and North Carolina, TheMis- 
and these settlers wished to trade with New question, 
Orleans. The Spanish government was un- 1786 - 
friendly and wished to prevent such traffic. The people 
of New England felt little interest in the southwestern 
country or the Mississippi River, but were very anxious 
to make a commercial treaty with Spain. The govern- 
ment of Spain refused to make such a treaty except on 
condition that American vessels should not be allowed 
to descend the Mississippi River below the mouth of the 
Yazoo. When Congress seemed on the point of yield- 
ing to this demand, the southern states were very angry. 
The New England states were equally angry at what 
they called the obstinacy of the South, and threats of 
secession were heard on both sides. 

102. How the Federal Constitution Came to be 
Framed. Perhaps the only thing that kept the Union 
from falling to pieces in 1786 was the Northwestern 
Territory, which George Rogers Clark had conquered in 
1779, and which skilful diplomacy had enabled us to 
keep when the treaty was drawn up in 1782. Virginia 
claimed this territory and actually held it, but New 
York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut also had claims 
upon it. It was the idea of Maryland that The north . 
such a vast region ought not to be added to western 

& ° territory ; 

any one state, or divided between two or three the first 

pi 1 < 11 national 

of the states, but ought to be the common domain, 
property of the Union. Maryland had refused 
to ratify the Articles of Confederation until the four 
states that claimed the northwestern territory should 
yield their claims to the United States. This was done 



252 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

between 1780 and 1785, and thus for the first time the 
United States government was put in possession of 
valuable property which could be made to yield an in- 
come and pay debts. This piece of property was about 
the first thing in which all the American people were 
alike interested, after they had won their independence. 
It could be opened to immigration and made to pay the 
whole cost of the war and much more. During these 
troubled years Congress was busy with plans for organ- 
izing this territory, which at length resulted in the 
famous Ordinance of 1787, laying down fundamental 
laws for the government of what has since developed 
into the five great states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
Michigan, and Wisconsin. While other questions 
tended to break up the Union, the questions that arose 
in connection with this work tended to hold it to- 
gether. 

The need for easy means of communication between 
the old Atlantic states and this new country behind 
the mountains led to schemes which ripened in course 
of time into the construction of the Chesapeake and 
Ohio and the Erie canals. In discussing such schemes, 
Maryland and Virginia found it necessary to agree upon 
some kind of commercial policy to be pursued by both 
states. Then it was thought best to seize the occasion 
for calling a general convention of the states to decide 
The con- upon a uniform system of regulations for com- 
vention at me rce. This convention was held at Annapolis 

Annapolis, 

Sept. 11, in September, 1786, but only five states had 
sent delegates, and so the convention adjourned 
after adopting an address written by Alexander Hamil- 
ton, calling for another convention to meet at Philadel- 
phia on the second Monday of the following May, " to 
devise such further provisions as shall appear necessary 



§102. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 253 

to render the constitution of the Federal government 
adequate to the exigencies of the Union." 

The Shays rebellion and the quarrel about the Missis- 
sippi River had by this time alarmed people so that it 
began to be generally admitted that the Federal gov- 
ernment must be in some way strengthened. If there 
were any doubt as to this, it was removed by the 
action of New York. An amendment to the Articles 
of Confederation had been proposed, giving Congress 
the power of levying customs-duties and appointing 
the collectors. By the summer of 1786, all the states 
except New York had consented to do this. But in 
order to amend the articles, unanimous consent was 
necessary, and in February, 1787, New York's refusal 
defeated the amendment. Congress was thus left with- 
out any immediate means of raising a revenue, and it 
became quite clear that something must be done without 
delay. 

The famous Federal Convention met at Philadelphia 
in May, 1787, and remained in session four months, with 
Washington presiding. Its work was the framing of 
the government under which we are now living, and in 
which the evils of the old confederation have The Fed- 
been avoided. The trouble had all the while Sjfi^t 
been how to get the whole American people p , h . iladel - 

r tr phia, May- 

rcpresented in some body that could thus right- Sept., 17S7. 
fully tax the whole American people. This was the 
question which the Albany Congress had tried to settle 
in 1754, and which the Federal Convention did settle in 
1787. 

In the old confederation, starting with the Continen- 
tal Congress in 1774, the government was all vested in 
a single body which represented states, but did not 
represent individual persons. It was for that reason 



254 



THE REVOLUTION. 



Ch. XII. 




HAMILTON. 



that it was called a congress rather than a parliament. 

It was more like a congress 
of European states than the 
legislative body of a nation, 
such as the English Parlia- 
ment was. It had no execu- 
tive and no judiciary. It 
could not tax, and it could not 
f enforce its decrees. 

The new constitution 
changed all this by creating 
the House of Representatives, 
which stood in the same rela- 
tion to the whole American people as the legislative 
assembly of each single state to the people of 
that state. In this body the people were rep- 
resented, and could therefore tax themselves. 
At the same time in the Senate the old equal- 
ity between the states was preserved. All 
control over commerce, currency, and finance 
was lodged in this new Con- 
gress, and absolute free trade 
was established between the 
states. In the office of Presi- 
dent a strong executive was 
created. And besides all this, 
there was a system of Federal 
courts for deciding questions 
arising under Federal laws. Most 
remarkable of all, in some re- 
spects, was the power given to 
the Federal Supreme Court, of deciding, in special cases, 
whether laws passed by the several states, or by Congress 
itself, were conformable to the Federal Constitution. 

1 After a crayon by J. Baker. 2 After a painting by Stuart. 



The new 
govern- 
ment in 
which the 
Revolution 
was con- 
summated, 
1789. 




JEFFERSON.' 



§ 102. 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 



255 




MARSHALL. 1 



Many men of great and various powers played impor- 
tant parts in effecting this 
change of government, which 
at length established the 
American Union in such a 
form that it could endure ; 
but the three who stood 
foremost in the work were 
George Washington, James 
Madison, and Alexander 
Hamilton. Two other men, 
whose most important work 
came somewhat later, must 
be mentioned along with these, for the sake of com- 
pleteness. It was John Marshall, chief justice of the 
United States from 1801 to 1835, whose profound deci- 
sions did more than those of any later judge could ever 
do toward establishing the 
sense in which the Constitu- 
tion must be understood. It 
was Thomas Jefferson, presi- 
dent of the United States 
from 1 80 1 to 1809, whose 
sound democratic instincts 
and robust political philoso- 
phy prevented the Federal 
government from becoming 
too closely allied with the in- 
terests of particular classes, 
and helped to make it what it should be, — a " govern- 
ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." 

1 After a painting by Rembrandt Peale, in the rooms of the Long 
Island Historical Society. 

2 After a painting by C. W. Peale, in the rooms of the Long Island 
Historical Society. 




MADISON.- 



256 THE REVOLUTION. Cn. XII. 

In the making of the government under which we live, 
these five names — Washington, Madison, Hamilton, 
Jefferson, and Marshall — stand before all others. I 
mention them here chronologically, in the order of the 
times at which their influence was felt at its maximum. 

When the work of the Federal Convention was sanc- 
tioned by the Continental Congress and laid before the 
people of the several states, to be ratified by special con- 
ventions in each state, there was earnest and sometimes 
bitter discussion. Many people feared that the new 
government would soon degenerate into a tyranny. But 
the century and a half of American history that had 
already elapsed had afforded such noble political train- 
ing for the people that the discussion was, on the whole, 
more reasonable and more fruitful than any that had 
ever before been undertaken by so many men. The 
result was the adoption of the Federal Constitution, fol- 
lowed by the inauguration of George Washington, on 
the balcony of the Federal Building, in Wall Street, 
New York, April 30, 1789, as President of the United 
States. For a short t.ime the city of New York was the 
seat of the government. 

Thus, the Middle Period of American history, which 
began, in 1689, wrtn the struggle between France and 
England for the possession of North America, came 
to an end, in 1789, with the birth of an independent 
English-speaking nation. 



topics and questions. 

Drifting toward Anarchy. 

1. Lord North's receipt of the news from Virginia. 

2. Remaining events of the war. 

3. The treaty of peace : 

a. By whom negotiated on our part. 



CH. XII. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 257 

b. When signed. 

c. Its terms with respect to territory. 

4. Continuance of the old difficulty about government. 

5. Discontent in the army and its cause. 

6. A scheme to make Washington king. 

7. The disbanding of the army. 

8. Reasons for and against this disbanding. 

9. Provisions of the treaty not carried out : 

a. Confiscation of property. 

b. Collection of debts. 

10. Treatment of the Tories. 

11. British retaliation : 

a. Through nonwithdrawal of troops. 

b. Through adverse commercial legislation. 

12. Why American retaliation was difficult. 

13. Commercial war among the states. 

14. Quarrels among the states about territory. 

15. European opinion about the drift of things. 

16. The craze for paper money: 

a. Promissory notes. 

b. Why the farmers wanted paper money. 

c. The triumph of the farmers in Rhode Island. 

d. The Shays rebellion in Massachusetts. 

17. The Mississippi question: 

a. Trade with New Orleans. 

b. Commerce with Spain. 

c. The attitude of the Spanish government. 

d. The stirring up of angry feelings. 

102. How the Federal Constitution Came to be Framed. 

1. The Northwestern Territory as a bond of union : 

a. How the United States came to own it. 

b. Why such ownership proved a blessing. 

c. The Ordinance of 1787. 

2. How the Federal Convention came to be called : 

a. The occasion for calling a commercial convention. 

b. This convention and its outcome. 

c. Effect of the Shays rebellion on popular thought 

about the government. 

d. How certain action by New York strengthened this 

thought. 



258 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

3. The Federal Convention : 

a. Its session. 

b. Its great work. 

c. The Continental Congress unlike a parliament. 

d. Provisions of the new Constitution relating (1) to 

the legislative department, (2) to the executive 
department, and (3) to the judicial department. 

4. Men prominent in changing the government : 

a. The three foremost men. 

b. The contribution of John Marshall. 

c. The contribution of Thomas Jefferson. 

5. The ratification of the Federal Constitution. 

6. The Middle Period of American history. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Give an account of Hutchinson (page 249), and tell what 

views he held about the relations of the colonists to the 
mother country (see Fiske's American Revolution, vol. 
i. 62, 63). 

2. Review the history and work of the first Continental 

Congress. 

3. Review the history and work of the second Continental 

Congress. 

4. Was there a third Continental Congress? 

5. Compare the organization of our present Congress with 

that of the Continental Congress. 

6. Compare the powers of our present Congress with those 

of the Continental Congress. 

7. Is the Congress of the United States to-day a lineal de- 

scendant of the Continental Congress ? Give reasons 
for your answer. 

8. Why was it necessary to substitute a new constitution for 

the old Articles of Confederation ? 

9. Why were people so reluctant to establish a strong govern- 

ment to succeed that of the Continental Congress? 

10. How was this reluctance finally overcome ? 

11. What is despotism ? What is anarchy ? Which of these 

two conditions did the people fear the more ? What 
signs of each were discernible or thought to be dis- 
cernible at the close of the war ? 

12. Compare the Articles of Confederation with our present 



Ch. XII. THE CRITICAL PERIOD. 259 

Constitution in the provisions made by each for the fol- 
lowing matters : — 

a. Legislative authority. 

b. Executive authority. 

c. Judicial authority. 

13. Compare the Articles of Confederation with our present 
• Constitution in respect to the following: — 

a. Money-raising power. 

b. Army-and-navy raising power. 

14. Mention several things that our present Congress legally 

does which the Continental Congress had no power to 
do. 

15. Is there any power or authority higher than that of the Con- 

stitution ? If so, what is it ? Are the constitutions of the 
various states controlled in any way by that of the United 
States? If so, show in what general way. Mention some 
things among us that are controlled by United States 
laws, some by state laws, and some by town or city laws. 
Is it allowable for these three classes of laws to conflict 
with one another ? 

16. Find authority in the Constitution for various things that 

Congress has done, such as the following : 

a. It has established a military academy at West Point. 

b. It has given public lands to Pacific railroads. 

c. It has authorized uniforms for letter carriers. 

d. It has ordered surveys of the coast. 

e. It has established the Yellowstone National Park. 

f. It has voted millions of dollars for pensions. 

g. It refused during the Civil War to pay its promises 

with silver or gold. 
h. It bought Alaska of Russia. 
i. It has adopted exclusive measures towards the Chinese. 

17. Cite clauses of the Constitution, and tell what particular 

things Congress has done because of such authority. For 
example, what specific things have been done under the 
following powers of Congress ? 

a. To collect taxes. 

b. To regulate commerce with foreign nations. 

c. To coin money. 

d. To establish post-roads. 

e. To provide for the common defence. 
f. To provide for the general welfare. 



260 THE REVOLUTION. Ch. XII. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

The following topics for collateral reading are intended pri- 
marily for the teacher and the more mature and intelligent pupils. 
They are selected from Fiske's The Critical Period of American 
History, — a work that deals with events from the close of the 
American Revolution, in 1 783, down to the inauguration of Wash- 
ington, in 1789, as the first president of the United States under 
the new Constitution. 

1. The Thirteen Commonwealths. 

a. Washington's farewell to the army, 51-53. 

b. The legacy of his advice, 54. 

c. Love of union then and to-day, 55-59. 

d. Local jealousies and primitive savagery, 62. 

e. The states and the nation in the Revolution, 63-65. 

2. The League of Friendship between the States. 

a. The Continental Congress, 90-98. 

b. Its three fatal defects, 99-101. 

c. Military weakness of the government, 101-103. 

d. Money weakness of the government, 104-112. 

e. Hamilton and the Tories, 124-130. 

3. Drifting toward Anarchy. 

a. Barbarous ideas about trade, 134-137. 

b. Commercial war between the states, 145-147. 

c. Almost a war between Connecticut and Pennsylvania, 

147-151. 

d. Almost another about Vermont, 151—153. 

e. The Barbary pirates, 1 57-161. 

f. The craze for paper money, 168-177. 

g. An insurrection in Massachusetts, 177-186. 

4. The Germs of National Sovereignty. 

a. Rival claims to a great folkland, 1 87-1 91. 

b. The triumph of Maryland's grand idea, 191-194. 

c. Virginia's magnanimity, 195. 

d. The backwoodsmen's short-lived state, 199-201. 

e. The famous Ordinance of 1787, 203-207. 

f. The leading men in the Federal Convention, 222-229. 

5. The Great Discussions of the Federal Convention, 

230-305. 

6. The Crowning of the Convention's Mighty Work, 

306-350. 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 
1789-1894. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 1789-1815. 

103. The Country and the People. The nation over 
which George Washington was called to preside, in 1789, 
was a third-rate power. It was, for example, a third- 
decidedly inferior in population and wealth to rate P ower - 
the Belgium of to-day, and about on a level with Den- 
mark or Portugal. The population, numbering scarcely 
four millions, was thinly scattered through the region 
east of the Alleghanies, beyond which mountain bar- 
rier there were about 100,000 in Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky, and the town of Marietta, in Ohio, had just been 
founded. East of the mountains, the red man had 
ceased to be dangerous, but tales of Indian massacre 
still came from places no more remote than Ohio and 
Georgia. The occupations of the people were simple. 
There were few manufactures. In the coast towns of 
the northern states there were many merchants, sea- 
men, and fishermen, but most of the people were farm- 
ers who lived on what they raised upon their own 
estates. People seldom undertook long journeys, and 
mails were not very regular. It took a week to go from 
Boston to New York in a stagecoach, and all large 
rivers, such as the Connecticut, had to be crossed in 
boats, as none of them had bridges. Hence, the differ- 



262 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIII 



ent parts of the country knew very little about each 
other, and entertained absurd prejudices ; and the sen- 
timent of union between the states was very weak. 

The change in the modes of living since the first set- 
tlement of the country was very slight compared with 
the changes that have taken place since 1800. There 
were no large cities. Philadelphia, in 1790, had a popu- 
lation of about 42,000 (rather less than Springfield, 
Mass., in 1890). Next came New York, with 33,000; 
then Boston, with 18,000; and Baltimore, with 13,000. 
Such towns had not yet lost the rural look. In Boston, 




BOSTON IN 1790.I 



for example, the streets were unpaved, and the side- 
walks unflagged. The better houses were usu- 
ally built of brick, with little flower gardens in 
front, or lawns dotted with shrubbery. The furniture, 
silver, and china in them were mostly imported from 

1 Facsimile of a print in the Massachusetts Magazine, November, 1790. 
The point of view is in Governor Hancock's grounds ; the common, with 
the great elm, is in the middle distance, the south part of the town, with 
the Neck, is beyond, and in the further parts are Dorchester Heights. 




HANCOCK HOUSE.* 



England, but some fine pieces of furniture were made 
at Dedham near by. There was no heating by fur- 
naces or steam pipes, but there were large fireplaces 
with brass andirons holding stout logs of wood. A tall 
clock usually stood in the corner, and fairly good pic- 
tures, including portraits by Copley and historic scenes 
by Trumbull, hung upon the walls. Of books there 
were very few by American authors. Milton and Bun 
yan, Pope and Young, the Spectator, the Letters of 
Junius, and Rollin's Ancient History were the books 
oftenest seen lying about. The people who lived in 

1 This noble stone house, on Beacon Hill, was built in 1737, by Thomas 
Hancock, upon whose death, in 1764, it became the property of his 
nephew, John Hancock. In 1859, the Legislature of Massachusetts was 
urged to buy and preserve it. This attempt failed, and, in 1S63, the 
estate was sold by the heirs, and the house was presently pulled down. 



264 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIIL 




A HARPSICHORD. 



those houses were dressed exactly like gentlemen and 
ladies in England. Social life consisted largely in go- 
ing out to dinner or tea, or in going to church. In the 
larger towns there were 
balls with dancing. In- 
stead of the modern piano 
there were spinets and 
harpsichords, — small in- 
struments somewhat like 
a piano, with thin metal- 
lic tones. Very little 
was known about music. 
Theatres were just begin- 
ning to be established in 
spite of furious opposi- 
tion. Actors in Boston 
tried to evade the law by calling plays "moral lectures," 
but the trick did not succeed ; one evening in Decem- 
ber, 1792, a performance of the School for Scandal was 
stopped at the end of the second act by the sheriff, who 
threatened to arrest all the actors. 

In the country there were large and handsome houses, 
many of which are still standing, built of wood, with 
Country very solid frames, finished inside with elabo- 
rate paneling, and furnished as well as the 
best city houses. The ordinary farmer lived in a smaller 
house, often with only a single floor and a garret. In 
the centre rose an immense brick chimney with an oven 
in it for baking bread, or pies, or beans. Besides the 
bedrooms there was a " best room," or parlor, opened 
only for weddings, funerals, Thanksgiving Day, or other 
rare occasions. There were the polished candlesticks, 
the family portraits, the few cherished books. But the 
pleasantest part of the house was the kitchen with its 



§ 103- THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 265 

great fireplace and swinging crane and high-backed 
settle, its bunches of herbs and apples or onions hang- 
ing from the ceiling, its spinning wheel, busy in the 
evening, its corner cupboard bright with pewter mugs 
and dishes, and its cosy table to which buckwheat cakes 




AN OLD-FASHIONED KITCHEN. 1 



Copyrighted by R. A. Ordwaj. 



could be handed from the griddle without having time 
to cool. Here was served the midday dinner of salted 
pork, beef, or fish, with potatoes and brown bread. Of 
the fine succulent vegetables, so wholesome and now so 
common, the farmer in those days knew little. Ice was 
not stored for use ; water was drawn fresh from the deep 

1 The above picture of a New England kitchen is copied by permission 
from a photograph of the kitchen in the Whittier homestead at East Haver- 
hill, Mass., so graphically described in Whittier's exquisite poem, Snow- 
Bound. The room on the right, opening from the kitchen, is the chamber 
in which the poet was born. The house is now under the care of a Whit- 
tier Memorial Association, and is open to the public. 



266 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

well, and down in that same cool, dark place, the butter 
was hung in a pail and brought up at meal time dainty 
and toothsome. 

In New England, wheeled vehicles were coming into 

use as the roads were improved ; but people in the 

rural districts still went chiefly on horseback, 

Travel. 

and the women were still commonly carried to 
church on pillions. In the South, almost all travel was 
on horseback, or else by boat on the large rivers. Peo- 
ple went about so little that even in a town so large as 
Philadelphia, where Congress for so many years assem- 
bled, the sight of a stranger on the streets was apt to 
arouse curiosity, and an American who had crossed the 
Atlantic was sure to be pointed out, with the exclama- 
tion, " There 's a man that has been to Europe ! " 

Mastjmgton'sf ^ammtsftrattonsu 

Federalist : Ij8g-I'jg'J. 
104. Elements of Progress. This country, which 
seemed so insignificant beside the great powers of 
Europe, contained within itself the 
germs of such an industrial and 
political expansion as the world 
Sources of never saw before. The 
wealth. natural sources of wealth 
in North America — its soil, its 
timber, its mines — were so vast, 
the opportunities for earning a 
living were ,so many, as to create 
a steady demand for labor, far 
greater than any ordinary increase 
of population could supply. The 
steam-engine had lately been in- 
vented, and was being applied in England to machinery 




§ i°4- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



267 



for spinning and weaving. This was the beginning of 
the age of machinery and of countless inventions for 
increasing man's power of production. Soon the ad- 
vantage of all this was felt in the United States more 
than in any other part of the world, and people came 
flocking here from other countries because there was 
plenty for them to do. 

To secure such advantages, it was necessary that the 
Federal government should be strong enough to pre- 
serve peace at home, and to make itself respected 




A COTTON FIELD. 



govern- 
ment. 



abroad ; for neither business nor pleasure thrives amid 
anarchy or in a country that cannot defend ., 

.LOCcll Sell - 

itself. It was equally necessary that local self- 
government should be maintained in every 
part of the Union ; otherwise, people would lose their 
liberties, and life would become less attractive. After 
a century, we can truly say that, in spite of one great 
Civil War and some minor contests, our Federal Con- 



2 68 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

stitution has kept the American Union in such pro- 
found peace as was hardly ever seen before in any part 
of the earth since men began to live upon its surface. 
At the same time, local self-government has not been 
seriously interfered with, and the just rights of the 
states have, on the whole, been duly respected. 

105. Hamilton and the Assumption of Debts. This 
great success has been largely due to the fact that 
under President Washington a sound and correct start 
was made. The money question was most pressing. 
Since the old Continental Congress had been unable to 
pay its debts, American credit was dead. In 1784, 
Amsterdam bankers refused to lend so small a sum as 
$300,000 on the pledge of the United States to repay 
it. Washington's secretary of the treasury was Alex- 
ander Hamilton, one of the greatest statesmen this 
Alexander country has ever known. He was wonderfully 
Hamilton. success f u i i n finance. As Daniel Webster 
afterward said of him, " He touched the dead corpse of 
public credit, and it sprang upon its feet." Hamilton 
understood that it is impossible to keep one's credit 
without paying one's debts. He therefore proposed 
that the government should accurately compute all the 
debts of the Continental Congress, both foreign and 
domestic, and pay the whole amount in full, with inter- 
est. This point he carried. Then he proposed some- 
thing that surprised everybody and alarmed many ; he 
proposed that the debts of the separate states should 
be assumed and paid by the Federal government. In 
this there was profound wisdom. Most of the creditors 
to whom the states owed money were American citi- 
zens. If the United States were to assume the state 
debts, all these creditors would at once become cred- 
itors of the United States, and all would be eager to 



§ 105- THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 269 

have the Federal government get an ample revenue and 
be enabled to pay its creditors. This would result in 
building up a party directly interested in strengthening 
the Federal Government. Another of Hamilton's pro- 
posals, with the same end in view, was the establish- 
ment of a great bank, in which the national government 
should be a shareholder and partly a director. 

But some people objected to these measures, and said 
that the Constitution nowhere gives to Congress the 
right to charter such a bank, nor does it grant the right 
to raise money by taxation in order to pay debts owed 
by a state. 

To this objection Hamilton had an answer ready. 
There is a clause in the Constitution (article I., section 
viii., clause 18) which gives to Congress the right "to 
make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution . . . the powers vested by 
this Constitution in the Government of the United 
States." This ought to be called the Elastic TheEias- 
Clause of the Constitution, because it can be tlc clause - 
stretched so as to cover things it was not meant to 
cover, and it is always important to know how far it 
will do to stretch it. Hamilton said that his measures 
were needed to set the new government fairly on its 
feet. His opponents, led by Thomas Jefferson, said that 
the plea of necessity is a tyrant's plea ; that if you were to 
give Congress an inch it would take an ell ; and that the 
Elastic Clause would be a source of danger unless con- 
strued very strictly and made to cover as few things as 
possible. 

In this way arose the first great division between 
political parties under the Constitution. The Division 
Hamiltonians gave a loose or liberal construe- into par- 

ties 

tion to the Elastic Clause in order to make 



270 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

the new government strong. The Jeffersonians gave a 
strict or narrow construction to that clause because 
they were afraid the new government would grow too 
strong and become tyrannical. 

Before the time of which we are speaking, the North 
was as afraid of a strong Federal government as the 
South. But in the northern states there were many 
more merchants and capitalists who had lent money to 
the states, and nearly all these people supported Hamil- 
ton. On the other hand, the southern planters were 
afraid of having the government managed too much by 
capitalists, and so they generally supported Jefferson. 
Thus, the love for a strong Federal Union began to 
grow much faster at the North than at the South. 

The site for a Federal capital was to be selected. 
The Feder- Northern people wanted to have it as far north 
ai capital. as ^^ Delaware River, in order to have it more 
under northern influence. Southern people wanted to 
have it as far south as the Potomac. The dispute 
over this question and the dispute over assumption both 
raged fiercely. A bargain was made in which each side 
gave up one thing in order to get the other. Congress 
assumed all the state debts, and the city of Washington 
was built on the bank of the Potomac. 

106. The Tariff; War with the Indians. The 
assumption of state debts was a master-stroke of policy 
in strengthening the Union. Now, in order to pay all 
these old debts, state and national, Congress must have 
a revenue ; and it must have a revenue in order to pay 
the current expenses of government. How was this 
money to be got ? People were terribly afraid of having 
indirect their taxes increased. A direct tax would per- 
taxation. hapg have been res i ste( i. But there is a kind 

of indirect tax which a great many people scarcely notice 



§ io6. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



271 




or feel. By putting a tariff on goods imported from 
foreign countries, large sums of money can be raised 
without people realizing that they are paying a tax. 
By a very moderate tariff, Hamilton obtained at once 
revenue enough to carry on the government and provide 
for the payment of all the debts. He also recom- 
mended that the tariff be used to encourage native 
manufactures as well 
as to obtain revenue. 
He saw that manufac- 
tures were likely to 
spring up, and that it 
would be well to in- 
terest manufacturers 
in favor of a strong 
government. South- 
ern people wanted 
tariffs kept as low as 
possible, and said that the Constitution gave Congress 
no power to raise money by tariff for any other purpose 
than revenue. 

Hamilton's prudence in avoiding direct taxation was 
shown in one case where he departed from his rule. 
On whiskey he laid a small tax, and the distillers of the 
Alleghany region refused to pay it. In western Penn- 
sylvania, in 1794, there was something like a rebellion, 
but President Washington called out 15,000 troops,, 
and the insurgents were convinced by that sort of argu- 
ment without a battle. 

In those days, as before and since, the red men gave 
the army plenty to do. The western frontier . ,. 

J r j ^ Indian war. 

was then near the Wabash River. In 1790, 

the Indians won a great victory over General Harmar, 

near the site of Fort Wayne, and, in the following year, 



SCENE OF INDIAN WAR, 1790-95. 



272 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

they inflicted a terrible defeat upon General St. Clair, 
near the headwaters of the Wabash. Then they tried 
to make a treaty which should exclude white settlers 
from that region ; but in 1794, in a fierce battle near 
the site of Toledo, they were so badly defeated by 
General Wayne that they were ready to accept a treaty 
by which they were moved further west. 

107. Foreign Affairs ; Federalists and Republicans. 
The great French Revolution broke out in 1 789 ; the 
monarchy in France was overturned, and a republic 
proclaimed in 1792. War broke out between France 
and England early in 1793. The disorder in France 
amounted almost to anarchy, and the Hamiltonians 
sympathized with England as the upholder of law and 
order in Europe: The Jeffersonians, on the other hand, 
sympathized with the revolutionists in France. This 
made the quarrel between the two parties in America 
intensely bitter ; for the French expected us to help 
them in their war against England. In 1 793, they sent, 
citizen as minister to the United States, a man named 
Genet. Genet. The French democrats thought 
" Monsieur " and " Madame " too aristocratic titles, and 
so they addressed each other as "Citizen" and "Citi- 
zeness." This Citizen Genet behaved as if he owned 
the United States. Without waiting for permission 
from our government, he tried to have privateers fitted 
out in American seaports, and thus to drag us into war 
with Great Britain. Some Jeffersonians were ready to 
uphold him in almost everything, but his warmest sup- 
porters soon found his insolence intolerable. Washing- 
ton sternly checked his proceedings, and the French 
government presently thought it best to recall him. 

After the peace of 1783, the Tories in the United 
States were so badly treated that many thousands left 



§ io7- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



273 



the country ; many of these went to Canada. In some 
of the states, British merchants found it impos- j ay ' s 
sible to collect old debts. By way of retalia- treaty - 
tion for these things, England delayed surrendering 
Detroit and other northwestern posts. It was believed 
that British officers in those places had secretly helped 
the hostile Indians. British war-ships had a way of 
seizing American vessels bound to or from French 
ports, and, what galled us worst of all, they used to 
search our ships and 
carry off American 
seamen on the pre- 
tense that they were 
deserters from the 
British navy. To 
put an end to these 
troubles, John Jay, 
chief justice of the 
United States, was 
sent on a special 
mission to London. 
He negotiated a 
treaty in which 
Great Britain did 
not give up the right 
of search, but most other points were conceded. It 
was far preferable to war, and Washington's personal 
influence secured its adoption in spite of furious op- 
position. 

Hamilton's followers were properly called Federal- 
ists. They believed in having a strong Fed- The two 
eral Union instead of a loose Confederacy, P arties - 
such as the United States had been before 1789. The 

1 From the Stuart portrait in Tuckerman's Life of William Jay. 




CHIEF JUSTICE JAY.l 



274 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

Jeffersonians accused them of being monarchists at 
heart and lovers of England. They used to say that 
Federalist statesmen were bribed with " British gold " 
to convert our government into a monarchy. In con- 
trast to such a party, the Jeffersonians called themselves 
" Republicans." This name implied that they were the 
only true friends of republican government. . But their 
opponents, the Hamiltonians, called them " Democrats," 
and accused them of wishing to imitate in all things the 
democratic Frenchmen who were busily chopping off 
aristocratic heads in Paris. After a while, the Jeffer- 
sonian party came to be known as Democratic-Re- 
publican. 

Washington refused to be a candidate for a third 
„,, , term, and the election of i7q6 was contested 

The elec- ' ~ 

tion of between Jefferson and John Adams. The rule 
then was that the candidate who got the high- 
est number of electoral votes should be president, and 
the one with the next highest number should be vice- 
president. This was an unwise rule, since under it the 
death of the president might reverse the result of the 
election. In 1796, it made John Adams president, with 
Thomas Jefferson for vice-president. 

&Dmitti$tratiott of 3|ot)n #&am& 

Federalist: I/ty-lSoi. 

108. The Quarrel with France. The French gov- 
ernment was very angry with the United States for 
making the Jay treaty with Great Britain. The elec- 
tion of Adams to the presidency also enraged the 
French. They ordered our minister to leave the coun- 
try, and their cruisers began capturing American mer- 
chant vessels. For the United States, in that period of 



5 ic 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



275 



patches." 



was a 



weakness, war was extremely undesirable. President 
Adams sent commissions to Paris to arrange matters 
amicably, but the government refused to receive them. 
It was base enough, however, to approach them secretly 
with a most impudent and infamous proposal. Emis- 
saries from Prince Talleyrand caused it to be understood 
that if the United States were to bribe several members 
of the French government with liberal sums of money, 
the attacks upon our shipping would be stopped. The 
American envoys got this proposal in writing, and sent 
it to President Adams, who laid the papers before Con- 
gress. In April, 1798, the Senate had the whole thing 
printed and published. The letters of Talley- 
rand's emissaries were signed X. Y. Z., and z. dis- 
the dispatches of the envoys have always been 
known as the "X. Y. Z. dispatches." There 
fierce outburst of 
wrath from one 
end of the United 
States to the 
other. The pop- 
ular war cry was, 
" Millions for de- 
fense ; not one 
cent for tribute ! " 
An army was 
raised, and Wash- 
ington, though in 
his sixty-seventh 
year, was appoint- 
ed to command 
it. A few very 
fine war-ships were 
showed her mettle. 




THE TRUXTUN MEDAL. 



built, and one of them soon 
In February, 1799, tne gallant 



276 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIII. 



Thomas Truxtun, in the 38-gun frigate Constellation, 
captured the French 38-gun frigate L'Insurgente in the 

Caribbean Sea. The French government, as- 
French na- . . ° 
vai vessels tonished at this blow, became more courteous, 
cap ure . ^^ signified its wish to avoid a war. The 
Federalist party was eager for war, and Adams knew 




JOHN ADAMS. 1 

well that if he were to deal peaceably with France, it 
would be likely to prevent his reelection to the presi- 
dency ; but he sacrificed his own ambition to the good 
of the country, and sent envoys to France, who settled 
1 From Trumbull's painting in Memorial Hall, Cambridge, Mass. 



§§ io8, 109. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 277 

everything satisfactorily. Meanwhile, Captain Truxtun, 
in an obstinate fight, had defeated and captured the 
54-gun frigate La Vengeance, — a useful lesson for 
maritime powers disposed to insult the United States. 

109. The Alien and Sedition Laws. Secret emis- 
saries of France in this country had been more or less 
troublesome, and Republican newspapers had heaped 
abuse upon President Adams, and even upon The Alien 
Washington. By the Alien Act, the president Act# 
was empowered to banish from the United States any 
foreigner of whom he might entertain suspicions ; and 
if any such foreigner should return from banishment, he 
might be thrown into prison and kept there as long as 
the president should think proper. The Constitution 
gave Congress no power to pass such a law as The Sedi- 
this. By the Sedition Act, the publication of tion Act 
any writing calculated to bring Congress or the presi- 
dent " into contempt or disrepute " was made punishable 
by fine and imprisonment. This law was a gross viola- 
tion of the first amendment to the Constitution, which 
forbids Congress to make any law " abridging the free- 
dom of speech, or of the press." 

The Alien and Sedition laws, passed in 1798, seri- 
ously damaged the Federalists. Their opponents could 
now plausibly declare that the government was becom- 
ing tyrannical. The legislature of Virginia adopted a 
series of resolutions drawn up by Madison, declaring 
the Alien and Sedition laws unconstitutional, and invit- 
ing the other states to join in this declaration. These 
resolutions were repeated the next year, 1799. 

None of the other states took action except Kentucky, 
which went much further than Virginia, and declared 
that any state has a right to nullify an act of Congress 
which is in violation of the Constitution. To nullify 



278 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

a law is to refuse to allow it to be enforced within the 
Nuiiifka- state. It would be very dangerous if a single 
tion - state were permitted to nullify a law of the 

United States. It would soon break up the Union. The 
government of the United States has never acknow- 
ledged the right of nullification, or permitted any state 
to exercise it. 

In the midst of these troubles, Washington died at 
his home, Mount Vernon, Dec. 14, 1799, having won the 
love and veneration of mankind for all coming ages. 

Thus far, the government had been entirely in the 
hands of the Federalist party, and many people believed 
that if a Republican president were to be elected it 
would ruin the country. But, in spite of such 
tion of forebodings, the indignation over the Alien and 
Sedition laws prevailed, and the Federalists 
were defeated. The old rule of taking for president the 
name highest on the list, and for vice-president the name 
next to the highest, now made serious trouble. The 
Republicans intended to have Aaron Burr for vice-presi- 
dent. There were 73 electoral votes for Jefferson, 73 
for Burr, 65 for Adams, etc., so that no name was high- 
est on the list, and the election had to be decided by 
the House of Representatives. Some Federalists, will- 
ing to do anything to defeat Jefferson, intrigued in 
favor of Burr, but the House elected Jefferson only a 
fortnight before Adams's term expired. The delay 
raised a fear that the nation might be left without any 
president. To prevent the recurrence of such an 
absurd difficulty, the twelfth amendment to the Consti- 
tution was passed, in 1804. Since then, all candidates 
for the presidency have been named as such on the 
ballot, and the candidates for the vice-presidency have 
been named separately. 



§110. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



279 



31cfferson's jatttitintetration*. 

Democratic-Republican : 1801-1809. 

110. Louisiana, Oregon, and Tripoli. In 1800 the 
Federal government had been removed from Philadel- 
phia to Washington, and Jefferson was the first president 
inaugurated in the Federal city. The new president 



■ 




THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. 1 

was a very remarkable man. He was an accomplished 
scholar, reading several languages with ease. Thomas 
He was deeply interested in science and J e erson ' 
philosophy. He was a daring horseman, a dead shot 
with a rifle, and a skillful performer on the violin. He 

1 This is the east front of the Capitol as it looks to-day. The old 
north wing (just right of the centre) was finished in 1800, the old south 
wing in 1811. The building was destroyed by the British in 1814, and 
rebuilt in 1817-27. The two extreme wings were added in 1851-59, and 
the great dome was finished in 1865, which w as, by a curious coinci- 
dence, the year in which the perpetuity of the Union was fully decided. 



280 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Cn. XIII. 




THE UNITED STATES BEFORE 1803. 

was very accurate and punctual in his habits, with a 
Strong dislike for ceremony and parade. In many social 
and legislative reforms he was a foremost leader, as 
also in such matters as devising our decimal currency. 
He wrote the Declaration of Independence. While he 
was one of the first to announce the doctrine of nullifi- 
cation, which time has not justified, he was also the 
first to announce (in 1784) the doctrine upon which the 
present Republican party was founded, in 1854, — the 
doctrine that the United States government can and 
ought to prohibit slavery in all the national territory not 
already erected into states. He was also the founder 
of the University of Virginia. There are so many sides 
to Jefferson that people often fail to understand him. 
At the time of his election, many people feared that 
he and his party would try to undo the work that had 



§ no. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



28l 




THE UNITED STATES AFTER 1803. 

been done by Hamilton. But he made no serious 
changes, and the first great shifting of party supremacy 
was managed so skillfully in his hands that people's 
fears were soon quieted. 

The most remarkable event in Jefferson's presidency 
was the expansion of our national area by the purchase 
of the Louisiana territory, comprising the entire region 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky . 

Mountains, and extending from the north of iana pur- 
Texas to the southern boundary of British 
America. By the treaty of Paris, in 1763, France had 
given this vast territory to Spain. By another treaty, 
in 1 80 1, Spain gave it back to France; for Napoleon 
Bonaparte thought he would like to found a colony out 
there. But, in 1803, Napoleon saw that he was likely 
to have war with Great Britain, and knew that the Brit- 



282 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIIL 



ish fleet could easily keep French forces away from the 
Mississippi River ; so he was glad to sell the Louisiana 
territory to the United States, and it was done for 
$15,000,000. By making this purchase, Jefferson more 
than doubled the area of the United States. Before 
1803, that area was 827,844 square miles ; Jefferson's 
purchase added over 900,000 square miles, out of which 
have since been formed the states of Louisiana, Arkan- 
sas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Mon- 
tana, and the two 
Dakotas, with a 
great part of the 
states of Minne- 
sota and Colo- 
rado, and also the 
Indian Territory, 
including Okla- 
homa. 

The Constitu- 
tion gave no ex- 
press power to 
the president thus 
to add new terri- 
tory to the United 
States, but this 
purchase was so clearly for the good of the nation that 
people generally applauded it. Many Federalists at 
first tried to condemn it, but they could only do so by 
abandoning their loose construction of the Elastic 
Clause (§ 105). 

West of the Louisiana territory, and north of the 
Lewis and Spanish possessions, was a magnificent and 
Clark. fertile country where white men had never set 

foot. To what nation Oregon belonged was doubtful. 




PREBLE MEDAL (OBVERSE). 



§ no. 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



283 



Its great river had been discovered, in 1792, by Captain 
Robert Gray, of Boston, in the good ship Columbia, 
whose name he gave to the river. The illustrious Brit- 
ish sailors, Cook, Meares, and Vancouver, had explored 
parts of the coast. In 1804, President Jefferson sent an 
overland expedition under Captains Meriwether Lewis 
and William Clark. These explorers ascended the Mis- 
souri River to its sources, then found the valley of the 
Columbia, and explored it down to the Pacific Ocean, 

thus strengthen- 
ing our claim to 
the possession of 
Oregon. The 

story of this great 
expedition is full 
of charm. 
The Mahometan 
states of Tripoli 
and Tunis, Al- 
giers and Mo- 
rocco, had long 
made a business 
of piracy. Their 
cruisers swarmed 
upon the Medi- 
terranean and the Atlantic, and robbed the merchant 
ships of Christian nations. The plunder which the 
pirates carried home they divided with their _ 

r ... The war 

robber sovereigns. Distinguished captives with 
were held for ransom ; all others were sold np ° 
as slaves. This sort of thing had been going on since 

1 The inscription reads as follows : (obverse) The American Congress 
to Edward Preble, the gallant commander, (reverse) Defender of Ameri- 
can commerce before Tripoli, 1804. 




PREBLE MEDAL (REVERSE).l 



284 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

the times before Columbus, and vast sums had in vairi 
been paid to the robber states to bribe them to keep the 
peace. The Americans had begun in this way, and had 
made presents to Algiers and Tunis, to keep them from 
seizing American vessels. Then the Bashaw of Tripoli 
informed our government that he would wait six months 
for a handsome present from us, and if it did not come 
he would declare war against the United States. He 
was as good as his word, but, to the surprise of all those 
pirate states, a small American fleet entered the Medi- 
terranean and bombarded the city of Tripoli. After 
hostilities had continued for a couple of years, Tripoli 
was thoroughly humiliated, and the experiment of levy- 
ing blackmail upon the Americans was never tried again 
by those barbarous states. 

Except for this war with the pirates, which was as 
creditable to our country as it was successful, Jeffer- 
„, , son's first administration was a time of pro- 

Theelec- . r 

tionof found peace. It was the only time between 
I 793 an d 181 5 when warfare was not going on 
between France and Great Britain, and when American 
shipping on the high seas was comparatively unmolested. 
It was a prosperous time, and Jefferson's popularity grew 
to be such that, in the autumn of 1804, he received 162 
electoral votes against 14 for the Federalist candidate, 
Cotesworth Pinckney. For" vice-president, the Repub- 
licans elected George Clinton, as Burr's intrigues with 
the Federalists had ruined his reputation. Hamilton 
had more than once interfered with Burr's schemes, 
and that wretched man vowed revenge. In 1804, he 
contrived to kill Hamilton in a duel. This aroused 
such intense indignation as to wreck Burr's career. 
He afterwards set out on some crazy plan for creating 
a new government for himself in the Southwest, which 



§in. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 285 

led to his arrest and trial for treason ; but for want of 
sufficient evidence he was acquitted. 

111. The Embargo Act. In Jefferson's second ad- 
ministration, it was abundantly shown that, although our 
country was growing rapidly in population and wealth, 
it was still too weak to defend itself against vexatious 
insult at the hands of strong naval powers. The United 
States had then a very large mercantile marine for a 
power of its size, and thus, between the navies of Eng- 
land and France, it was like a rich and unarmed traveler 
between two brigands. Neutral ships were forbidden by 
Napoleon to enter British ports. England replied with 
decrees, known as Orders in Council, forbid- orders in 
ding neutral ships to enter the ports of any na- CounciL 
tion allied with Napoleon or subordinate to him. These 
decrees cut American ships off from almost all the har- 
bors of Europe. Both France and England did us as 
much damage as possible. But England aroused our 
wrath the more because British vessels impressed our 
seamen (§ 10.7). France could not- offend us in this way 
because an American could not easily be mistaken for 
a Frenchman. In 1807, war came near breaking out. 
The British 50-gun frigate Leopard, close upon the coast 
of Virginia, undertook to search the American 38-gun 
frigate Chesapeake. The American captain refused to 
allow the search, whereupon the Leopard fired several 
broadsides, killing and wounding more than twenty men 
on the Chesapeake. The latter, being not even The search 
in readiness to return the fire, hauled down her chesa- 
flag, whereupon British officers came on board P eake - 
and carried off four of the crew on the pretense that 
they were deserters from the British navy. This out- 
rage would probably have led the United States to de- 
clare war at once, had not England disavowed the act. 



286 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

If the United States had been stronger, it might have 
made war upon both France and England. As it was, 
its weakness made it hard to know what to do. It was 
thought that we could deal a heavy blow at our two tor- 
mentors, and perhaps bring them to terms, by refusing 
to trade with them altogether ; and, accordingly, in 
1807, Congress passed the Embargo Act, which forbade 
any vessel to set out from the United States for any 
foreign port. Whether this act hurt England and 
France or not, there was soon no doubt whatever that 
it was damaging the United States as badly as our 
worst enemy could wish. British and French cruisers 
had injured our commerce severely, but the Embargo 
nearly destroyed it. New England, which had the most 
shipping, suffered the most, and some Federalist leaders 
entertained dreams of seceding from the Union. 

The excitement over the Embargo did not materially 
weaken the Republican party. The legislatures 
tion of of nearly all the Republican states requested 
Jefferson to accept a third term, but he re- 
fused, as Washington had done ; and the refusal of 
these two great presidents created a feeling, which has 
come to have the force of custom, that no president 
ought to serve for more than two terms. 

In the November election, James Madison, the Re- 
publican candidate, obtained 129 electoral votes, against 
47 for Cotesworth Pinckney. In the following Feb- 
ruary, John Quincy Adams, a supporter of the Embargo, 
privately informed President Jefferson that further at- 
tempts to enforce it in the New England states would 
be likely to drive them to secession. Accordingly, the 
Embargo was repealed, and the Non-Intercourse Act was 
substituted for it. This act allowed commercial inter- 
course with all nations except England and France. 



§§ii2, 113. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 287 

spatton's #Dmmtaattonflu 

Democratic-Republican : l8oc}-l8iy. 

112. James Madison. For intellectual power our 
fourth president has been surpassed by none in the whole 
series. His learning was great, and, as a constructive 
statesman of the highest order, he had played a foremost 
part in making the Constitution of the United States. 
He was a man of kindly temper and great refinement 
and courtesy. Washington held him in high esteem, 
and Jefferson loved him like a brother. In politics he 
was always something more than a party leader, and he 
showed that independence which often goes with broad 
sympathies and far-sighted wisdom. 

But with all his great qualities, Madison had not 
exactly the kind of genius that could manage a war suc- 
cessfully. He was above all a man of peace. He hated 
war with all his heart ; and, like his three predecessors 
in the presidency, he felt that the best interests of the 
American nation required that it should keep out of 
war. That, however, was fast becoming impossible. 

113. Second War with Great Britain. In 1810, 
Congress tried to hold out hopes of repealing the Non- 
Intercourse Act as a bribe to France and England to 
repeal their obnoxious decrees in so far as they affected 
American ships and commerce. Napoleon took advan- 
tage of this in a way that was just like him ; he publicly 
informed the United States that he revoked Napoleon's 
his decrees, and, at the same moment, he du P Ucit y- 
issued secret orders to his admiralty officials, instruct- 
ing them to pay no heed to this public announcement. 
Congress was duped, and repealed the Non-Intercourse 
Act so far as France was concerned. England was 



288 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

again asked to repeal her obnoxious decrees, called 
Orders in Council, but she refused on the ground that 
Napoleon had not really revoked his decrees. So the 
Non-Intercourse Act was kept up against Great Britain 
alone, and we were not long in drifting into hostilities. 
In May, 1811, the British sloop Little Belt fired upon 
the American frigate President ; the fire was returned 
until the Little Belt was sadly cut up and obliged to 
surrender. Meanwhile, many American ships, deceived 
by Napoleon's lie, had ventured into French ports. 
For a little while they were well enough treated so as 
to induce more to come ; then all at once they were all 
seized, and in this way Napoleon contrived to rob peace- 
able American citizens of several million dollars. This 
act was a far greater outrage than any that England 
had committed ; and if it were necessary for the United 
States to go to war with either power, it was cer- 
tainly France that had given us most cause for resent- 
ment. 

But a war with France must needs' be defensive, for 
we could not send an army across the ocean. It would 
perhaps have been better policy for us to go to war with 
France, for that would have made England our ally, and 
would at once have put an end to the grievances we were 
suffering at her hands. A war with England, however, 
would give us a chance to be aggressive; we might 
invade and perhaps conquer Canada. This prospect 
was tempting to the people west of the Alleghanies, and 
to a group of young and enterprising statesmen, one of 
whom, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was chosen speaker 
of the House of Representatives, in November, 181 1. 
War de- These men prevailed upon President Madison 
dared. tQ a( j pt their war policy, and war was at 
length declared June 18,. 18 12. Two days before thisj,. 



§ "3- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



28Q 



the British government revoked its Orders in Council, 
but it was too late. Even if the news of the revocation 
had reached America in time, it is doubtful if it would 
have prevented the war unless Great Britain had also 
renounced the right of search. The popularity of the 
war was shown in the autumn elections. Some of the 
Republicans, dissatisfied with Madison, nomi- 
nated DeWitt Clinton, of New York, for the tion of 
presidency, and the Federalists, hopeless of 
electing any candidate of their own, concluded to sup- 
port Clinton. Of the 218 electoral votes, Madison ob- 
tained 128, and was elected. 

For England, the " mistress of the seas," the war be- 
gan with some strange surprises. On the 13th Naval 
of August, the frigate Essex, Captain Porter, vlctones - 
captured the British sloop Alert, after a fight of eight 
minutes, without losing 
a man. But that was 
nothing compared to 
what happened six 
days later, when the 
44-gun frigate Consti- 
tution, Captain Isaac 
Hull, after a half- 
hour's fight in the' 
Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, captured the 
38-gun frigate Guer- 
riere. The British 
ship lost 100 men, her 
three masts with all 
their rigging were shot away, and her hull was so cut 
up that she had to be left to sink ; the American ship 

1 From The Analectic Magazitie, vol. i. 




ISAAC HULL.l 



290 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIII. 




had fourteen 
men killed and 
wounded, and 
within an hour 
or so was ready 
for another 

fight. On the 
13th of Octo- 
ber, the sloop 
Wasp captured 
the British sloop 
Frolic. On the 
25 th, the frigate 
United States, 
Captain Deca- 
tur, captured 
the frigate Ma- 
cedonian, off 

the island of Madeira, after a fight of an hour and a half. 

The British ship lost 106 men, was totally dismasted, and 

1 From a painting by Marshall Johnson, Jr., owned by Benjamin F. 
Stevens, Boston, Mass. This noble frigate, one of the most famous ships 
known to history, was built at Hart's shipyard, in Boston, and launched 
October 21, 1797, at the place where Constitution Wharf now stands. 
She was coppered by Paul Revere, and first went to sea in August, 1798, 
under Commodore Nicholson. In 1833^ she was pronounced unsea- 
worthy, and it was decided to destroy her. It was then that Oliver 
Wendell Holmes wrote his famous poem Old Ironsides. 

" Ay, tear her tattered ensign down ! 

Long has it waved on high, 
And many an eye has danced to see 

That banner in the sky ; 
Beneath it rung the battle shout, 

And burst the cannon's roar ; — 
The meteor of the ocean air 

Shall sweep the clouds no more. 

" Her deck, once red with heroes' blood, 
Where knelt the vanquished foe, 
When winds were hurrying o"er the flood, 
And waves were white below, 



THE CONSTITUTION. 1 



§ ii 3 . THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 29 1 

had nearly ioo shot holes in her hull, but was brought 
away as a prize ; Decatur lost twelve men, and his ship 
was scatheless. On the 29th of December, the Consti- 
tution, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, met the 
British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil ; when, after 
two hours' firing, the Java struck her colors, she had lost 
230 men, and was a total wreck. A similar result at- 
tended the fight in the following February, between the 
sloop Hornet, Captain Lawrence, and the British brig 
Peacock, which sank before her crew could be taken off. 
It must be remembered that, when these things hap- 
pened, the English and French navies had been fighting 
for more than twenty years, and in such single combats 
the English had captured hundreds of ships and had lost 
only five. But now, in the course of six months, in six 
fights with American vessels, the British had lost six 
ships and taken none. This was partly because the 
Americans built better ships, partly because our crews 
were better disciplined, and our gunners more accurate 
in their firing. One sagacious British captain perceived 
this, and won success by adopting American methods 
of training his force. This was Captain Philip Broke, 

No more shall feel the victors tread, 

Or know the conquered knee ; — 
The harpies of the shore shall pluck 

The eagle of the sea ! 

" O, better that her shattered hulk 

Should sink beneath the wave ; 
Her thunders shook the mighty deep, 

And there should be her grave ; 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, 

Set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, 

The lightning and the gale ! " 

This poem aroused such a protest that the destruction of the venerable 
ship was averted. She was thoroughly repaired, and put to sea again in 
1834. She may be seen to-day (1898) in the Navy Yard at Charlestown, 
Mass. 



292 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

in command of the frigate Shannon; on June 1, 18 13, 
he captured the frigate Chesapeake near Boston 
chesa- harbor. The Americans lost 148 men, and the 
British 83. The Chesapeake's commander, 
Captain Lawrence, late of the Hornet, was mortally- 
wounded, and, as he was carried below, exclaimed, 
"Don't give up the ship!" For this welcome victory, 
Captain Broke was at once made a baronet, and the ex- 
travagant jubilation in England shows what profound 
chagrin had been felt there for ten months. 

It is unnecessary to recount all the sea fights of this 
war. But it should be remembered how Captain Porter, 
in the Essex, cruised a whole year in the Pacific Ocean, 
capturing the enemy's merchant ships, and at last, in 
other sea March, 1814, was attacked in the harbor of 
fights. Valparaiso by two British frigates and forced to 
surrender. In that bloody fight was a young midship- 
man, David Farragut, at the beginning of a great career. 
In the following summer, at different times, the Wasp 
captured two British sloops, her equals in force, in the 
English Channel. But it was reserved for the gallant 
Constitution, endeared to the people under her nickname 
"Old Ironsides," to cap the climax. In February, 1815, 
as she was cruising off the island of Madeira, with Cap- 
tain Stewart in command, ignorant of the fact that the 
war had ended, she was attacked by two British vessels, 
the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, and after a 
brisk action of forty minutes she captured them both. 

114. Leading Events of the "War. The moral effect 
of these superb sea fights was tremendous ; but other- 
wise we gained not much from them. In spite of such 
victories, we could not prevent the British navy from 
blockading portions of our coast. On land we suffered 
many reverses. To conquer Canada was not so easy as 



§H4- THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 293 

it seemed, and things were ill managed. General Wil- 
liam Hull began the invasion of Canada, but Loss of 
the army with which he started from Detroit Detr01t - 
was insufficient ; he was driven back into Detroit, and 
compelled to surrender. The British captured Fort Dear- 
born, now Chicago, at about the same time. 

The whole Northwest was thus thrown open to the 
enemy, and this was the more disastrous because the war 
against Great Britain was complicated with an Indian 
war which we could not have avoided in any event. For 
some time, the famous chieftain, Tecumseh, had been 
entertaining a scheme like that of Pontiac, for 

r ., Indian war 

uniting a great number of Indian tribes to in the 
drive back the steadily advancing westward 
wave of white settlers. Tecumseh' s brother, called the 
Prophet, had begun the war, in 1811, and had been 
totally defeated by General Harrison at Tippecanoe. 
Now the surrender of Detroit gave these Indians free 
sweep for a time. Unreasonable blame was laid upon 
General Hull, who was tried for neglect of duty and 
condemned to death, but fortunately was pardoned by 
President Madison. It has since been made clear that 
Hull was blamed unjustly. He was succeeded by Har- 
rison, who set out to recover Detroit, but British and 
Indians, under General Proctor, defeated his advanced 
guard at the River Raisin (January 22, 18 13). For 
years afterward, the River Raisin was a name of horror, 
for the Indians murdered all the prisoners. Harrison's 
progress was checked. 

Instead of conquering Canada, it began to look as if 
we might lose the northwestern territory, or a great part 
of it. But before the British could take it from us they 
must control Lake Erie, and, on September 10, 18 13, 
there was a memorable battle on its waters. The 



294 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIII 



British and American fleets were about equal in strength. 
The former consisted of six ships with sixty-three guns 
in all, and was commanded by one of Nelson's vet- 
erans, Captain Barclay. There were nine American 
vessels, but smaller, and they carried only fifty-four 
guns. It was but a few weeks since a considerable 
part of this fleet was growing in the neighboring forests. 
The young captain whose marvelous exertions 
of Lake had built and armed it, Oliver Hazard Perry, 
had never been in action before. His flagship 
was named the Lawrence, and a blue pennon at her 

masthead bore the dying 
words of the brave cap- 
tain of the Chesapeake. 
The Lawrence fought the 
two heaviest British ships, 
keeping their full force 
directed upon herself, un- 
til only Perry and eight of 
' '.' the crew were left. With 

these, the captain jumped 
into a boat, carrying his 
flag in hand, and was 
rowed through the midst 
of the enemy's fire to the 
Niagara. There he hoisted his flag, and, in a splendid 
charge, broke the British line and captured their whole 
fleet. His dispatch announcing the victory was brief 
and telling : " We have met the enemy, and they are 
ours ! " It was Perry who turned the scales of war. 
His victory enabled Harrison to enter Canada, where 
he utterly defeated Proctor and Tecumseh in the battle 

1 After an engraving in The Analectic Magazine for December, 1813. 
The original painting is now in the New York City Hall. 




o. h. perry. 1 



§ "4- 



THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 



295 




of the Thames. Tecumseh was killed in the battle, and 
Detroit was presently recovered. 

The next summer, 18 14, the Americans tried to invade 
Canada by way of the Niagara River. Jacob Brown 
and Winfield Scott 
crossed the river, and 
won two bloody bat- 
tles at Chippewa, July 
5, and at Lundy's 
Lane, July 25, but 
could get no further. 
Later in the season, 
two British assaults 
on Fort Erie were 
repulsed. At the 
same time, the British 
tried to invade New 
York, as Burgoyne 
had done, but their 
land force was totally defeated at Plattsburg by General 
Macomb, while Commodore Macdonough destroyed their 
fleet on Lake Champlain. 

Our southwestern frontier was in Alabama, where the 
Creek Indians began hostilities, in August, 1 8 1 3, The war in 
with a frightful massacre of men, women, and the South - 
children, at Fort Mimms. Then Andrew Jackson, with 
his Tennessee troops and a few United States regulars, 
made a bloody campaign of nearly seven months, ending 
with the great battle of Tallapoosa, in March, 18 14, 
which finally broke the Indian power in the Southwest. 

In that very month Napoleon was dethroned, and so 
England was able to send more troops to America. In 

: After Stuart's painting, owned by Macdonough's descendants, and 
now hanging in the rooms of the Century Club, New York. 



THOMAS MACDONOUGH.l 



296 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

August, a small British force entered the city of Wash- 
ington, which had no troops at hand to defend it, and 
burned several public buildings, a kind of exploit in 
which there is not much glory. They next tried to 
attack Baltimore, but were repulsed. No military pur- 
pose was subserved by these proceedings. 

The next and last movement of the British was 
against New Orleans. An army of 12,000 men, under 
Sir Edward Pakenham, landed below that city in De- 
cember. General Jackson, with about half as many 
men, awaited attack in a strongly intrenched position. 
It was foolish in Pakenham to try an assault, but he and 
his men were Wellington's veterans, and no such word 
as "defeat "was in their dictionary. But the 8th of 
January, 181 5, wrote that word for them in big letters. 
Their assault upon Jackson's lines lasted about twenty- 
five minutes ; then they made all haste from the field, 
leaving 2,600 killed and wounded. Pakenham was 
among the slain. The American loss was only eight 
killed and thirteen wounded, for they kept mowing 
down the British ranks so fast that the latter had no 
chance to return their fire. Never in all the history of 
England was a British army so badly defeated. This 
affair made Andrew Jackson the most prominent per- 
sonage in the United States. 

This war was always unpopular in New England, and 
„,, „ with the Federalist party, or what was left of 

The Hart- r • J 

ford Con- it. In December, 18 14, some of the Federal- 
ist leaders met at Hartford and passed resolu- 
tions. Among other things, they demanded that cus- 
tom house duties collected in New England should be 
paid to the states within whose borders they were col- 
lected, and not to the United States. This would have 
virtually dissolved the Union. 



§ ii4. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 297 

But on Christmas eve, 1814, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Ghent, between the American and British 
commissioners who had been discussing matters ever 
since August. Those were not the days of The Treaty 
telegraphs, and the last victories on land and of Ghent - 
sea were won without knowing that peace had already 
been made. The treaty left things just as they were 
before the war began. But the war had not been fought 
for nothing. It had strengthened the American feeling 
of nationality, and it had shown that the Period of 
Weakness, for this new nation, was coming to an end. 
After our naval victories, and the thunderbolt at New 
Orleans, no European nation was likely to think it worth 
while to insult the United States. 



topics and questions. 

103. The Country and the People. 

1. The United States a third-rate power in 1789. 

2. The occupations of the people. 

3. The isolation of the states. 

4. The great cities at this time. 

5. Their rural aspect. 

6. The furnishing of city houses. 

7. The amusements of city people. 

8. Farmers' homes and their furnishing. 

9. The country kitchen and its appointments. 
10. Travel, and its rarity. 

104. Elements of Progress. 

1. Natural sources of wealth. 

2. The age of machinery. 

3. The need of a strong federal government. 

4. The need of a strong local government. 

5. The experience of a century with each. 

105. Hamilton and the Assumption of Debts. 

1. The pressure of the money question. 

2. Washington's secretary of the treasury. 

3. A plan to pay the debts of Congress. 

4. The wisdom of the plan. 



300 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

9. The novelty and the cause of these British defeats. 

10. The British capture of the Chesapeake. 

11. The Essex, the Wasp, and the Constitution. 
114. Leading Events of the War. 

1. The loss of Detroit. 

2. The scheme of Tecumseh. 

3. Hull's surrender, and the Indian opportunity. 

4. The failure to recover Detroit. 

5. The battle of Lake Erie. 

a. How it came to be fought. 

b. The building of the American fleet. 

c. The heroism of Perry. 

d. The consequences of the victory. 

6. Fighting the Creeks. 

7. The wanton attack upon Washington. 

8. Jackson and the battle of New Orleans. 

9. The demands of the Hartford Convention. 

10. The treaty of peace. 

11. The war not fought in vain. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. Why is the period of chapter xiii. called The Period of Weak- 

ness ? Give proofs of the weakness of this time. 

2. Where may houses and furnishings of the last century still be 

seen ? In what parts of the country are they unknown ? 
What customs of the last century are still observed, and 
where ? Where is one more likely to see them at the pres- 
ent time ? What old-time customs, arts, and constructions 
are people fond of reproducing to-day ? 

3. What are some of the oldest towns and cities in our country ? 

Select one of them, and tell what traces of the last century 
it still retains. Compare it in age with European cities you 
have in mind. Why is an old city more interesting than a 
new one ? 

4. Is the George Washington of our thought to-day like the real 

Washington of the Revolution ? What things do we prob- 
ably leave out of our Washington that belonged to the real 
one ? Is the Benedict Arnold of our thought to-day like the 
real Arnold ? If not, what is the difference ? Mention other 
Americans whose reputations for better or for worse have 
increased with time. May not events as well as men become 



Ch. XIII. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 301 

different in the popular thought from what they really were ? 
If so, give illustrations. 

5. What accusations were brought against Washington at differ- 

ent times by his opponents ? (See McMaster's History of 
the People of the United States) 

6. Wherein was Washington especially great ? 

7. What is a tariff ? A tariff for revenue only ? A tariff for pro- 

tection ? A moderate tariff ? A prohibitory tariff ? What 
is free trade ? Has there always been free trade between 
the states ? What officers and buildings does a tariff make 
necessary ? What offenses does a tariff make possible ? 

8. Show how a poor man whose tax bill is nothing pays taxes in 

substance if not in form. Show how some of the money it 
costs him to live goes to the town or city, some to the 
county, some to the state, and some to the nation. Does 
anybody succeed in escaping payment of taxes? Has 
American history been affected by questions of taxation ? 
If so, how ? 

9. Tell about the French Revolution of 1789. Had American 

events anything to do with it ? If so, in what way ? 

10. Would you have been a Federalist or a Republican in Washing- 

ton's time ? Give reasons for your answer. Are the Repub- 
licans of. the Civil War and since that time the same his- 
torically as the Jeff ersonian Republicans ? Explain. What 
differences were there between these two Republican parties 
in respect (a) to the idea of a strong central government, 
and (b) to nullification. Tell about The Federalist as to its 
authorship, its purpose, its influence, and its fame. 

11. Why were President Adams and Vice-President Jefferson 

badly matched politically ? How did it happen ? Why is 
such a thing not likely to happen again ? 

12. What reasons had Americans for sympathizing with France? 

What reasons had they for not sympathizing with France ? 

13. What is bribery ? What shapes may it take ? What is there 

wrong about it ? What instances of bribery, or attempted 
bribery, are there in American history ? Why is it an insult 
to an honest man to offer him a bribe ? Which is the 
greater offender, the briber or the bribed? How was it 
when America bribed the Barbary pirates ? 

14. Are newspapers free to-day to bring Congress or the president 

into " contempt or disrepute " by what they publish ? Why 



302 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIII. 

is it undesirable to enact laws against such publications ? 
Is the press absolutely free under our laws to say any gross 
or untrue thing it pleases about public men ? 
15 Ought not an unconstitutional act of Congress to be nullified? 
Why should not a state be permitted to nullify it ? What 
way of nullifying such an act has been provided ? 

16. What different states have advocated nullification at different 

times ? Why is there so little talk of nullification to-day ? 

17. Was Jefferson a strict constructionist of the Constitution or a 

loose one ? How did he construe the Constitution when he 
bought Louisiana ? 

18. Why was it an inglorious exploit to burn the public buildings 

at Washington ? 

19. Was the War of 181 2 one that could have been honorably 

averted ? Compare it with the War of the Revolution in 
respect (a) to causes, (b) to duration, (c) to American general- 
ship on land, (d) to conflicts on the sea, (e) to the authority 
of the government that carried it on, (f) to the magnitude of 
the principles at stake, and (g) to results. 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

The following topics are selected from A History of the People 
of the United States, by John Bach McMaster, published by D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. This work is intended to cover 
the period from the American Revolution to the Civil War. At 
present (1894) it consists of three volumes that bring events down 
to the War of 181 2. While this work deals with political parties 
and controversies, wars and rebellions, the great leaders of affairs, 
and the larger features of national development, it is of special in- 
terest to teachers and pupils because of the prominence it gives to 
the real every-day life of the people, to their likings and aversions, 
to their homes, occupations, and amusements, to the progress of in- 
vention and learning among them, to the growth of the humane 
spirit, — in short, to those numerous and varied elements which lie 
beneath the surface of what is popularly known as history, and 
form the soil whence it issues. 

1. The State of America in 1784, i. 1-102: 

1. Boston in 1784. 4. The country minister. 

2. The New England farmer. 5. The old-time doctor. 

3. Times of the red school- 6. The newspapers. 

house. 



Ch. XIII. THE PERIOD OF WEAKNESS. 303 

7. Letters. 15. The Georgia planter. 

8. Carrying the mail. 16. The Virginia gentleman. 

9. Travel by land and by sea. 1 7. Books. 

10. New York city in 1784. 18. The fine arts. 

11. Albany in 1784. 19. Baltimore in 1784. 

12. Seaport towns. 20. Opposition to the theatre. 

13. Philadelphia in 1784. 21. Condition of the laborer. 

14. Pittsburgh in 1784. 22. Prisons and criminals. 

2. The Federal Government, i. 525-604: 

1. The tardy assembling of the first Congress. 

2. The crusade against foreign goods. 

3. Debate on titles for the president. 

4. Slavery and the slave trade. 

5. The changing centre of population. 

6. Presidential etiquette. 

7. Washington's tour of the country. 

3. The Struggle for Neutrality, ii. 89-108 : 

1. Illustrations of strong sympathy with France. 

2. How Citizen Genet carried a high hand. 

3. How Washington was roundly abused. 

4. An ocean duel between French and English. 

5. Genet's failure and recall. 

6. Hardships in settling Ohio. 

7. Settlements in the interior of New York. 

8. Eli Whitney and the cotton gin. 

9. Samuel Slater and the first cotton mill. 

10. How the British searched American ships. 

11. The beginning of the American navy. 

12. What the Republicans (also known as Democrats) wanted. 

13. The peace policy of Washington. 

4. Town and Country Life in 1800, ii. 538-582 : 

1. Fires and firemen. 11. Discomforts of travel. 

2. Fire insurance. 12. Country inns. 

3. French fashions. 13. New England meeting-houses. 

4. Ball rooms and theatres. 14. The growth of impiety. 

5. Plays and players. 15. Fishing villages. 

6. Automatons and shows. 16. The New England Primer. 

7. A balloon ascension. 1 7. Western pioneers. 

8. Museums and the circus. 18. Paths of emigration. 

9. The Lancaster turnpike. 19. Frontier life. 

10. German farmers. 20. The Kentucky revival. 



304 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIIL 

5. State of the People in 1812, iii. 459-540 : 

1. Growth in thirty years. 12. Horse-power railways. 

2. Streams of emigrants. 13. Rise of manufactures. 

3. The rage for turnpikes. 14. Pay of workmen. 

4. Cost of carrying goods. 1 5. Labor societies. 

5. Surveying the coast. 16. Strikes. 

6. Roads and canals. 17. Slavery discussions. 

7. Towns on the Ohio. 18. Putting down the slave trade 

8. Trade in the Southwest. 19. Tecumseh. 

9. Steamboat experiments. 20. The Prophet, his brother. 

10. Robert Fulton. 21. William Henry Harrison. 

11. Steaming up the Hudson. 22. Tippecanoe. 

6. Miscellaneous Topics from vols, i., ii., and iii. : 

1. Robert Morris, the financier of the Revolution. 

2. The first tour of Lafayette in America. 

3. The voyage of the Empress to China. 

4. A serious rebellion subdued in Massachusetts. 

5. The character of Benjamin Franklin. 

6. The character of Patrick Henry. 

7. The great Whiskey Insurrection. 

8. Election frauds in 1 796. 

9. John Randolph of Roanoke. 

10. The death of Alexander Hamilton. 

11. Aaron Burr and his wild schemes. 

12. The city of New Orleans in its early days. 

13. Treatment of criminals in the territories. 

14. The expedition of Lewis and Clark. 

15. The Barbary pirates brought to terms. 

16. The impressment of American seamen by the British 

17. The search of the Chesapeake. 

18. The long Embargo, and the distress it caused. 

19. New England's attitude toward the Embargo. 

20. Jefferson at Monticello. 

21. The President and the Little Belt. 

22. The youth of Henry Clay. 







CHAPTER XIV. 

WESTWARD EXPANSION. 1815-1850. 

115. The Close of a Warlike Period. The year 
181 5 marks the beginning of a new era in America and 
in Europe. It saw the end of the terrible Napoleonic 
wars, to which our second war with Great Britain was 
merely an appendage. Since 1815, the civilized world 
has been more successful than ever before in keeping 
clear of war. It is close upon eighty years since 181 5, 
and in this time Europe has seen about ten years of 
war, and the United States about six years ; but in the 
eighty years before 181 5, Europe saw about fifty years 
of war, and the United States as many as thirty years. 
In going back still further, we should find for Europe 
and the world in general a still worse record. 

With the peace that began in 181 5 there came many 
improvements and reforms. A change of industry had 
been going on with the application of steam and ma- 
chinery to manufacturing ; and now that the war was 
over, the effects of this change began to be felt every- 
where. Wealth and comfort were increased, and ques- 
tions of domestic policy began to have more interest for 
people than questions growing out of warfare. 

sponroe'sf j9tomtni$tration& 

Democratic-Republican : 181/-182J. 

116. The Era of Good Feeling. Before Jefferson's 
election to the presidency, the Federalists were the 



306 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



national party, and when threats of nullification or se- 
cession were heard, it was from Republicans, as in the 
Kentucky Resolutions of 1799. But after Jefferson's 
election the Republicans came to be more and more 
the national party, and when threats of secession were 
heard, it was from Federalists, chiefly in New Eng- 
land. As the national spirit grew, such threats fell 
The eieo into disfavor. The Hartford Convention killed 
lsiVand tne Federalist party. In 18 16, their candidate, 
1820. Rufus King, received only 34 electoral votes 
against 187 for the Republican candidate, James Mon- 
roe. In 1820, the Federalists put no candidate into the 
field, and Monroe's reelection was practically unanimous. 
Since the two elections of George Washington, that of 
James Monroe, in 1820, is the only one in which there 

has been no opposing 
candidate. His presi- 
dency was, therefore, 
called "the era of 
good feeling." For 
great powers or ac- 
complishments, he 
cannot be compared 
with any of the first 
four presidents. He 
was a plain, honest, 
able citizen, with 
many virtues and 
james monroe.1 much popularity. 

117. Monroe's Foreign Policy. During the late war, 
Florida had been in a condition of anarchy, and the 
Seminole Indians molested the frontier of Georgia. 
Since the Spanish government could not or would not 

1 After a painting by Vanderlyn, in the New York City Hall. 




§ 117- WESTWARD EXPANSION. 307 

maintain order there, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida 
and virtually took possession of the country, purchase 
His conduct excited hot debate in Congress ofFlonda - 
and in the Cabinet, but the matter was finally adjusted 
by buying Florida and paying Spain $5,000,000 for it. 
This was done in 18 19. 

Spain's hands were tied at that time by the revolt of her 
Mexican and South American colonies, which set them- 
selves up, one after another, as independent republics. 
In 181 5, the sovereigns of Russia, Prussia, and Austria 
formed a compact known as the Holy Al- The Holy 
liance, the real object of which was to uphold Alhance - 
absolute monarchy, and to lend a hand wherever possi- 
ble in suppressing republican movements. There were 
indications that the Holy Alliance might assist in sub- 
duing Mexico and other Spanish-American states, and 
in such an event there was danger that those American 
countries might get divided up among European powers 
stronger than Spain. For example, Russia, which pos- 
sessed Alaska, and had lately established sundry trading 
posts upon the coast of California, might conclude to 
take California in payment of services. To guard 
against such complications, President Monroe declared, 
in a message to Congress, in 1823, that the United 
States regarded the continents of North and 

. The Mon- 

South America as no longer open to coloniza- roe doc- 
tion by European powers ; and, further, that 
any European attempt to interfere with any independent 
American government would be resented by the United 
States. To language of this sort the exploits of Andrew 
Jackson and of " Old Ironsides " had given a serious 
meaning. Ten years earlier, all Europe would have 
laughed at it ; but now England sympathized with it, and 
the Holy Alliance abandoned its schemes. Monroe's 



3 o8 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



message was, in the European money market, considered 
equivalent to a decisive victory for the Spanish-Ameri- 
can states ; their funds rose in value at Once. The next 
year, Russia made a treaty with us in which she aban- 
doned all claim to the Pacific coast south of 54° 40', the 
southern limit of Alaska. 

118. The Unexpected Growth of Negro Slavery. 
Between 1790 and 1820, the population of the United 
States increased from nearly four to nearly ten million. 
The public revenue had increased twice as fast as the 
population, that is, fivefold, from five to twenty-five 
westward million dollars. Some of this increase of popu- 
growth. lation and business was always pushing west- 
ward in spite of grave obstacles, the chief of which had 
been the danger from Indians and the difficulty of mov- 
ing persons and goods from place to place. But the 
victories of Harrison and Jackson had overthrown the 
Indian power headlong as far as the Mississippi. As to 

locomotion, won- 
derful things had 
lately been done. 
In 1807, Robert 
Fulton's steam- 
boat, the Cler- 
mont, the first 
successful steam- 
boat, began run- 
ning up and 
down the Hud- 
son River. In 
181 1, a steamboat was launched on the Ohio River, at 
Pittsburgh, the "Gateway of the West," and it was not 
long before the western rivers were lively with swift 

1 From an old print. 




FULTON'S STEAMBOAT, THE CLERMONT. 1 



§ nS. WESTWARD EXPANSION. . 309 

little puffing and wheezing vessels, carrying settlers 
with their household goods, farm produce and tools, 
bales of merchandise, traders, and land speculators. As 
soon as the war was over, the effects of this began to be 
seen in the growing up of new western states. Indiana 
was added to the Union in 1816, Mississippi in 18 17, 
Illinois in 18 18, Alabama in 18 19. With this westward 
growth, a new and startling question was suddenly to 
spring up and disturb the quiet of the " era of good 
feeling." 

It will be noticed that, in the admission of the above- 
named states to the Union, a kind of balance was pre- 
served between North and South ; Mississippi „ 

' l x Keeping 

was a counterweight to Indiana, and Alabama the 
to Illinois. This was not an accident. It was 
intended to keep the balance as even as possible between 
the slave states and the states which had no slaves. Let 
us see why this was thought to be necessary. 

Before the Revolution, all the colonies had negro 
slaves. In Queen Elizabeth's time, nobody realized the 
wickedness of slavery, and so all the colonies started 
with it. But in the colonies north of Maryland there 
was little for negroes to do that could not better be 
done by white men ; so there was no demand for negro 
labor, and slavery was gradually abolished with no diffi- 
culty. But in the South it was different. Cheap negro 
labor was in great demand for the cultivation of rice and 
indigo, cotton and tobacco ; and everybody took it for 
granted that negroes would not work except as slaves. 
This feeling was strongest in South Carolina and Georgia. 
Nevertheless, there was a good deal of opposition 
to slavery, even in such slave states as Virginia, expected to 
and in Washington's time it was believed that 
slavery, if let alone, would gradually die of itself. The 



310 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

Constitution gave to the United States government no 
right to interfere with slavery in states where it was 
already established. Some compromises were made in 
the Constitution which settled the slavery question for 
the whole country, as it was then confined to the east 
of the Mississippi River. 

But the institution of slavery, instead of dying out, 
suddenly took on new and vigorous life. The invention 
of steam-driven machines for spinning and 
takes on weaving led to the growth of immense manu- 
factories in England, and every year there was 
a greater demand for cotton to be sent across the ocean 
and made into cloth. The country along the shores of 
the Gulf of Mexico became almost wholly devoted to 
raising cotton. This was greatly helped by the cotton 
gin, a very simple machine for cleaning the cotton fibre 
from the seed, invented, in 1793, by Eli Whitney. This 
increased the demand for slave labor, and made south- 
erners anxious to defend the institution of slavery against 
possible attacks from the North. Thus, it became neces- 
sary to keep the representation in Congress as evenly 
balanced as possible ; and so, as new states were admit- 
ted into the Union, we see slave states and free states 
alternating, as, for example, when Mississippi counter- 
balanced Indiana, and Alabama served as an equipoise 
for Illinois. 

The territory northwest of the Ohio River — out of 
which have been made the five great states of Ohio, In- 
diana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin — was first or- 
ganized as a territory by the Continental Congress, in 
™. ^ j- l 7$7- It was then national domain; that is, it 

The Ordi- ' ' ' 

nance of belonged to the United States as a nation, and 

1787 

had no other government except what was made 
for it by Congress. The famous Ordinance of 1787, 



§nS. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 3H 

which organized that territory, prohibited slavery for- 
ever within its limits, am! so all the states north of the 
Ohio came into the Union as free states. The Ohio 
River was the boundary line i_etween freedom and slav- 
ery for black men. 

This boundary line ended at the Mississippi River; 
in what way should it be continued beyond ? The vast 
Louisiana territory was national domain. The first state 
made from it was Louisiana, which was admitted as a 
slave state, in 1812, without formidable opposition from 
the North. Now if the next state had been as far north 
as Minnesota, it might have been admitted as a free state 
without formidable opposition from the South. But it 
happened that the next state to be formed was Missouri. 
Just at that time, Maine, which had been, ever since 
1692, a sort of appendage to Massachusetts, was asking 
for admission to the Union. The southern members of 
Congress refused to consent to the admission of Maine 
unless the northern members should allow Missouri to 
come in as a slave state. There was a great discussion 
over this question, which was settled, in 1820, . 

by the famous Missouri Compromise. By this souri Com- 

-» it • • • iTT- promise. 

arrangement, Missouri came into the Union as 
a slave state, but Congress took the parallel of 36 30' as 
a dividing line through the rest of the Louisiana pur- 
chase, and prohibited slavery forever to the north of 
that line. That parallel was thenceforth known as the 
" Missouri Compromise Line." The person to whom 
most credit was due for the compromise was Henry Clay. 
It averted serious trouble between North and South on 
the slavery question for nearly thirty years, but it did 
not satisfy everybody. Some southerners maintained 
that Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the 
national domain. 



312 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



The elec 
tion of 
1824. 



In the next election there were four candidates for the 
presidency, all called Republicans. They were 
John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts ; Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky ; William Crawford, of Geor- 
gia ; and Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. The latter 
was the most popular candidate, on account of his great 
victory over the British. He was also a man of humble 
birth, without education or other early advantages, and 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 1 



many persons wished to see such a man in the White 
House instead of such aristocratic gentlemen as had 
hitherto been our presidents. So Jackson had the great- 
est number of electoral votes, but no one had a majority, 
and the election was decided by the House of Represen- 
tatives. The House chose Adams for president. 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. iv. 



§ "9- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



3*3 



#mttmt0tratton of 31o^u ^iuinc^ #&ams. 

National Republican : l82^-l82g. 

119. New Issues and a New Division of Parties. 
The Missouri Compromise quieted the slavery question 
for a while ; but other questions coming up Internal 
between 1820 and 1830 brought about a new improve- 
division of parties. The first question related 
to what were called internal improvements. As the 




A CANAL WITH LOCKS. 



settled country expanded westward, better means of 
communication were needed ; there was a growing de- 
mand for new roads and canals, and for the improve- 
ment of rivers and harbors. One canal was finished 
in 1825, and the effects were great and immediate. It 



314 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

was the Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie with the 
Hudson River. In 1820, it cost $88 to carry a ton of 
freight from Albany to Buffalo ; after the Erie Canal 
was finished, that ton could be carried for $22.50, and 
the price went on falling till it reached $6. 50. That 
simple fact made central New York a great highway, 
and caused large cities to grow up there, and made it 
easy for emigrants to push on westward into the woods 
of Michigan. Thus, the great movement of population 
from New England into the Northwest was immensely 
stimulated, and New York became the most populous 
state in the Union instead of Virginia. 

Some people thought it would be a good plan to have 
all parts of the country brought into close communica- 
tion by a regular system of roads and canals, and that 
these should be constructed by the national government 
and paid for by taxation. There were other people who 
equally approved of building roads and canals, but 
thought it had much better be done by private enter- 
prise, aided perhaps by the state governments. They 
disapproved of having it done by the national govern- 
ment. 

During the war of 18 12-15, ^ had become difficult to 
„ ._ obtain manufactured goods from foreign coun- 

Tariffs. ° . & . 

tries, and in some cases articles of inferior 
quality had begun to be made in the United States. 
After the war, manufacturers began to insist upon hav- 
ing high duties put upon many foreign goods in order to 
raise the price, so that Americans might find it cheaper 
to buy American goods. A tariff framed for such a pur- 
pose was called a " protective tariff," since its design 
was to protect American manufacturers against for- 
eign competition. A tariff framed without reference 
to such protection, but purely in order to obtain revenue 



§ ug. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 315 

for the government, is called a "tariff for revenue only." 
Some authorities maintain that any tariff which should 
yield to the government a sufficient revenue would inci- 
dentally afford to our manufacturers all the protection 
they need. That is more or less what people have in 
mind when they speak about a " tariff for revenue with 
incidental protection." 

In Ouincy Adams's time, manufacturers generally, 
who were mostly in the northern and eastern states, 
wanted the tariff duties to be made as high as possible. 
But the southern people, devoted entirely to agriculture, 
wished to obtain foreign goods as cheaply as possible, 
and, therefore, favored a low tariff. 

Hamilton's Bank of the United States had been estab- 
lished in I7QI on a charter which expired in „, „ . , 

' y * Ihe United 

181 1. It was again set going in 1816 on anew states 
twenty years' charter. There was always much 
opposition to such a bank; many feared it would get 
dragged into politics and become an engine of corrup- 
tion. The charter of the bank was to expire in 1836, 
and there was sure to be fierce opposition to its renewal. 
As a general rule, the people who favored internal im- 
provements at the national expense favored also a high 
tariff and the national bank. During Adams's adminis- 
tration, they became distinguished as National Republi- 
cans, because they were ready to increase the Democrats 
powers of the national government. Their op- ^"na^Re- 
ponents, formerly called by the common name P ublicans - 
of Democratic Republicans, dropped the latter part of 
the name, and were thenceforth known simply as Demo- 
crats. They denied that the national government had 
any constitutional authority to build roads and canals, 
or to impose a tariff for any other purpose than reve- 



316 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV, 

nue, or to charter such a bank as that which Hamilton 
had founded. On the other hand, the National Repub- 
licans maintained that the Elastic Clause conferred 
upon the national government the right to do all these 
things. 1 

In the first trial of strength, the National Repub- 
licans won two decisive victories in Congress on the 
tariff question. The tariff bill passed in 1824 was 
highly protective, and that of 1828 still more so. The 
latter tariff gave offense to many people, especially in 
the South; its enemies called it the "tariff of abomi- 
nations." 

In the next election, Adams and Jackson were the two 

candidates for the presidency. If they had been the 

j only two candidates in 1824, Jackson would 

tionof have been elected. In 1824, Adams had 84 

1828 

electoral votes, while the other 177 were scat- 
tered among three candidates. In 1828, Adams had 
83 votes, while Jackson had 178, and was elected. 

^acton's? 0nmtntoattonsf, 

Democratic: 1829-1837. 

120. The Spoils System. Public opinion in America 
was all the time growing more and more democratic, and 
it was a common notion that there was something very 
democratic, and, therefore, meritorious, in what was 
called "rotation in office." Jackson was the first presi- 
dent to apply this principle to small federal officials, 
such as postmasters and revenue collectors, whose work 

1 The Constitution also authorizes Congress to lay and collect duties, 
to provide for the general welfare of the United States; and to regulate 
commerce with foreign nations (Art. I., section viii., clauses I, 3) ; and the 
National Republicans held that these grants conveyed the power of lay- 
ing protective duties. 



§§ 120, 121. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



317 




has properly no connection with politics. From 1789 
to 1829, the number of removals of civil service officials 
had averaged less than two each year. During the year 
1829, Jackson turned at least 2,000 men out of office 
(including subordinate ^s^- 

clerks), and filled their 
places with his own ad- 
herents. This practice 
has been continued by 
all subsequent presi- 
dents, although not with 
equal thoroughness. In 
this way there began 
with Jackson the bad 
habit of using public 
offices as rewards for 
partisan political ser- 
vices, a habit which has 
done more to degrade and corrupt public life in our 
country than all other circumstances taken together. 
Yet Jackson was a thoroughly honorable man, and had 
no idea of the harm that was to come from such a prac- 
tice. It came to be called the Spoils System, from 
the remark of a United States senator, that political 
warfare seemed to be conducted on the principle that 
"to the victors belong the spoils." 

121. Nullification. If Jackson did incalculable harm 
to the country by introducing the Spoils System, he 
did incalculable good by the prompt and determined 
stand which he made against nullification. We have 
observed that the tariff of 1828 was extremely unpopular 
in the South. One of the greatest of southern states- 
men, the illustrious John Caldwell Calhoun, of South 

1 From Parton's Life of Andrew Jackson. 



ANDREW JACKSON. 1 



3i8 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV- 





HENRY CLAY. 



JOHN C. CALHOUN. 



Carolina, now maintained the right of any state to de- 
cide for itself whether an act of Congress were unconsti- 
tutional or not ; if the state should decide such an act 
to be unconstitutional, it might declare it to be null and 
void, and might resist its execution within the limit of 
the state. This would be nullifying an act of Congress. 
It was feared that South Carolina would proceed, in ac- 
cordance with Calhoun's doctrine, to attempt to nullify 
the tariff of 1828, and refuse to allow the duties levied 
by it to be collected in her ports. Such an action would 
be a long step toward breaking up the Federal Union. 

Early in 1830, Senator Hayne, of South Carolina, an- 
nounced the theory of nullification in a very powerful 
speech in the United States Senate. He was answered 
Hayne and by Daniel Webster, senator from Massachu- 
Webster. seI ts, in one of the greatest speeches in the 
English language. Such a speech was in itself proof 
that love for the Union had increased very much since 
Washington's presidency ; it did much to intensify that 
love, and served as a watchword for years to come. 



$121. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



319 




DANIEL WEBSTER. 



The president was 
known to be hostile to 
protective tariffs, but those 
of the nullifiers who 
looked for sympathy from 
him were disap- Jackson's 
pointed. OnApril attitude - 
13, 1830, some Democrats 
in Washington gave a 
dinner in commemoration 
of Jefferson's birthday, 
and Jackson was present. 
One or two toasts were 
given which hinted at nul- 
lification, when Jackson suddenly got up and volunteered 
a toast, " Our Federal Union ; it must be preserved ! " 
This was an unexpected bomb-shell for the nullifiers. 

During the year 1832, a new tariff bill was passed, some- 
what modifying that of 1828, but failing to satisfy the 
South. For the election of that autumn, the _ , 

The elec- 

presidential candidates were nominated for the tionof 

1832 

first time in national conventions. Before that 
time, it was customary to nominate them by a party cau- 
cus in Congress, or by state legislatures, or by special 
local conventions. In 1832, there were three party nom- 
inations. One was that of the Anti-Mason party. In 
1826, one William Morgan, in western New York, who 
had published a little book exposing some secrets of 
Freemasonry, mysteriously disappeared, and was sup- 
posed to have been murdered by Freemasons. This 
aroused great excitement, and led to the formation of a 
party designed to exclude all Freemasons from office. 
The Anti-Masons nominated William Wirt, of Virginia, 
for president. The National Republicans nominated 



320 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

Henry Clay. The Democrats nominated Jackson. In 
the election, South Carolina passed by all these candi- 
dates, and gave her 1 1 votes to John Floyd, of Virginia ; 
Wirt got the 7 votes of Vermont ; Clay got 49 votes ; 
and Jackson 219. 

This great victory made Jackson's position very 
^ , , strong. In December, a state convention in 

Defeat of ° ' 

nuiiifica- South Carolina declared the tariff of 1832 null 
and void, forbade the collection of duties at 
any port in the state, and threatened, if interfered with 
in these proceedings, to secede from the Union alto- 
gether. Jackson immediately issued a proclamation 
warning the people of South Carolina that any attempt 
to resist the Federal laws would be put down ; he 
sent Lieutenant David Farragut with a naval force to 
Charleston harbor, and made it clear that the army 
would be used if necessary. Soon afterward, through 
the efforts of Henry Clay, a tariff with lower duties, 
known as the Compromise Tariff, was passed, and to the 
mixture of threat with persuasion the nullifiers yielded. 
A great danger was averted for the time, and a pre- 
cedent of immense value was established by Jackson's 
prompt and decisive action. 

122. Overthrow of the United States Bank. Jack- 
son's hostility to the bank had been shown throughout 
his first term of office. In 1832, he vetoed the bill for 
its re-charter. In 1833, he ordered that public money 
should no longer be deposited in this bank, but distrib- 
uted among sundry state banks. In the way in which he 
did this he probably exceeded his constitutional powers, 
and the rest of his administration was largely consumed 
in a quarrel with Congress, in which, as in all his contests, 
he finally came off victorious. The Senate passed a 
resolution of censure upon him ; his ablest friend in that 



§ 122. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



321 







body, Thomas Benton, senator from Missouri, persisted 
in urging that the censure should be expunged, and, 
after a long struggle, he carried his point, early in 1837. 

The National Republicans, led by Clay, maintained 
that in his removal of the public deposits from the bank 
the president was usurp- 
ing arbitrary power and 
overriding constitutional 
checks. In the South 
there were many people 
who did not approve of 
nullification, but thought 
that the president had no 
right to call for military 
force to suppress it. These 
people were called " State 
Rights " men, and one of 
their principal leaders was 
John Tyler, of Virginia. They were, in general, op- 
posed to a high tariff, a national bank, and internal im- 
provements, and, therefore, agreed with the National 
Republicans in nothing except hostility to the Formation 
president. But in mutual opposition to Jack- Wm ^ e 
son and his supporters, these two groups of Fly- 
men, the followers of Clay and the followers of Tyler, 
began to be drawn together. In 1834, the National 
Republicans began to call themselves Whigs, on the 
ground that Jackson was a kind of tyrant whom they 
opposed just as Whigs of an earlier time had opposed 
George III. This name pleased the Tyler men, who 
presently called themselves " State Rights Whigs." 

These northern and southern wings of the new Whig 
party had not quite come together in 1836. The State 

, 1 From Benton's Thirty Years' View. 



THOMAS HART BENTON. 1 



322 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



The elec- 
tion of 
1836. 



Rights men nominated Hugh White, of Tennessee, for 
president, and John Tyler for vice-president. 
The northern Whigs nominated William Henry 
Harrison, a plain, honest soldier without much 

politics about him. The Democrats nominated Martin 

Van Buren, who obtained 1 70 electoral votes against 1 24 

for all other candidates, and was elected. 



Vwci %wcm'$ #Dmmtaation. 

Democratic : 1837-1841. 

123. A New Era of Progress. The ten years, 
1830-40, were remarkable as the beginning of a new 

era of progress throughout 
the civilized world. Of 
the many wonderful things 
that were done, we have 
room to mention only very 
few. There was a man 
then in England whose 
genius did more for roads 
and travel than all the gov- 
ernments on earth could 
do. Roads with fixed rails, 
called tramways, had been 
in some use about mines, 
for drawing loads of coal. 
Steam engines had been for some time in use in boats 
The loco- and in factories. George Stephenson devised 
a steam engine that could run on wheels along 
a railway and drag carriages after it. Some people 
smiled at this wonderful invention, and one member of 
a parliamentary committee tried to quiz the inventor : 

1 From Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics, i. 369. 




GEORGE STEPHENSON. 1 



§ 123- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



323 



" Suppose, Mr. Stephenson, that a cow were to get in 
front of your engine moving at full speed, what would 
happen ? " If this bright man expected to hear a reply 
that the engine would probably be upset, he was disap- 
pointed. Mr. Stephenson was a Northumberland man, 
with a strong accent, and his reply was, " It wad be vera 
bad for the coo ! " 

The inventor of the railroad ought to be ranked among 
the chief builders of the American Union. We can now 




ONE OF THE FIRST RAILWAY TRAINS IN AMERICA.! 



go from New York to Portland in Oregon in less time 
than it would have taken us, in Quincy Adams's presi- 
dency, to go from New York to Portland in „,, ,, 

«x>i • r ™he bless- 

Maine. Think of the poor little wagons of ingsof 
those days struggling over muddy roads with 
their farm produce or parcels of merchandise, and then 
think of the enormous freight trains now rushing night 
and day from end to end of the United States ! How 
snug and compact they make this vast country, and how 
much easier to govern ! Railroads, too, enlarge people's 
minds, for ease of travel and commerce brings us into 
more frequent contact with other parts of the world, and 

1 Taken from a facsimile of the original drawing, which is now in the 
possession of the Connecticut Historical Society. This train was run on 
the Mohawk and Hudson railroad. The first excursion trip was made 
from Albany to Schenectady, on August 9, 1831. The locomotive was 
the third built in America for actual use. 



324 



THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 



tends to rub off our prejudices and antipathies. In 1830, 
there were 23 miles of railroad in the United States ; by 
1840, there were 2818 miles, and for the next twenty 
years, the figures doubled every five years. They soon 
began to be as important as steamboats in extending our 
settlements westward, and after a while they became far 
more important. 

In 1836, anthracite coal was successfully used in pro- 
ducing steam, and, in the same year, John Ericsson in- 
vented the screw propeller, which required much less 
fuel than the paddle wheel. In 1838, steamships began 
, making regular trips across the Atlantic, and it 

Ocean traf- ° ° A . 

fie and was not long before this began to increase our 
of pro- 1 " population by the increased influx of laborers 
gress. from Europe. Then there were labor-saving 

machines, such as the McCormick reaper, invented in 
1831, and the Nasmyth steam hammer, in 1838 ; and it 
was in 1836 that the Patent Office had so much work to 
do that it was made a distinct bureau. In 1830, the city 
of New York was more than two centuries old, and its 
population had lately passed 200,000, while Brooklyn had 
about 12,000; the new and sudden growth was to carry 
the population of those cities within another sixty years 
to nearly two and a half millions. Chicago, now a city 
'of more than a million, was then a mere village in the 
wilderness, and on the outskirts of civilization. Along 
with other great inventors and inventions, it is especially 
to George Stephenson and the railroad that Chicago 
owes her wonderful growth. 

Side by side with this colossal invention, we may 
name a little one. Many persons are still living who 
Friction can remember when it was sometimes neces- 
matches. gar y to g Q tQ one > s neighbors to borrow the 
means of lighting the kitchen fire. Friction matches 



§§ 123, 124- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



525 




A VIEW OF CHICAGO IN 1832.I 

were unknown till 1829. A few years afterward (1835), 
while the invention was still new, some ill-disposed per- 
sons sought to hinder the business of a meeting of 
Democrats in New York by suddenly putting out the 
lights ; but some of the company present had " locofoco 
matches " in their pockets, and the lamps were at once 
lighted again ; and such an impression did this little inci- 
dent make on the public mind that for about ten years the 
Democrats were very commonly called " Locofocos." 

124. The Commercial Panic of 1837. The rapid 
development of western lands since 1820 led to a vast 



1 This drawing, made by Mr. George Davis, a well-known citizen of 
Chicago, is a faithful landscape of the locality at the junction of the two 
branches of the Chicago River, then called Wolf's Point. 

The building on the left was the Wolf Tavern, where General Scott 
made his headquarters during the Black Hawk War. That on the right 
was the Miller House. They were used, as necessities might require, 
for Sunday services, or as schoolhouses, taverns, or private residences. 
Except the fort, they were the most notable buildings of the place. 



326 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



amount of wild speculation, and this was made worse by 
our banking system, which had never been very sound. 
Too much paper money was afloat. After 1830, the 
wild spec- building of railroads intensified speculation into 
uiation. a craze, and further harm was done, in 1833, by 
Jackson's violent distribution of the public deposits. In 
1837, there came a tremendous commercial crash, the 

worst this country has 
ever known. All over 
the country the banks 
suspended specie pay- 
ments, thousands of fam- 
ilies were ruined, and 
laborers were deprived of 
work. 

People thought - that 
government ought to try 
to cure these evils. 
Some clamored for an 
issue of paper money ; 
others wanted to have 
the bank reestablished. 
But President Van Buren believed that government 
should meddle with commercial business as little as pos- 
sible. In financial matters, his ability was very great, 
The di- and the principal achievement of his adminis- 
ban C kand tration was the divorce of bank and state. 
state. By y an Buren's " Sub-Treasury System " — 

which, after some vicissitudes, was finally established in 
1 846, and is still in force — the public revenues are not 
deposited in any bank, but are paid over on demand to 
the treasury department by the collectors. This sepa- 
ration of the government from banking was an achieve- 
ment of great and permanent value. 

1 After a painting by Holman. 




MARTIN VAN BUREN. 1 



§§ 124, ' 2 5- 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



327 



The troubles of 1837 had not passed out of men's 
minds in 1840, and undoubtedly had much to 
do with the result of the election. Northern tion of 
and southern Whigs were now combined, and 
nominated as their candidates Harrison and Tyler. As 
Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, had lived in a log 
cabin and had hard cider on his table, much was made 
of these circumstances in the campaign, and Van Buren 
was reviled as a heartless aristocrat with a silver tea 
service. In the election, " Tippecanoe and Tyler too," 
as they were called in one of the campaign songs, had 
234 votes to Van Buren' s 60, and were elected. There 
was a third candidate, James Birney, representing oppo- 
sition to negro slavery, but he got no electoral votes. 



%i}t fyum&QXif%ykt £tomim$tratton. 

Whig: 18^1-184$. 

125. Leading Events in Tyler's Administration. 

In a month after the 
inauguration, President 
Harrison died, 

The death 

and Tyler be- of Harri- 

. , son. 

came president. 
This unexpected event 
led to a quarrel which 
partially broke up the 
Whig party. President 
Tyler was as much op- 
posed to high tariffs, in- 
ternal improvements, 
and a national bank as 
William henry Harrison^ Jackson himself. He 

1 From the National Portrait Gallery, vol. iii. 




328 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 



differed from the Democrats only in not being willing to 
use military force to put down nullification, and in dis- 
approving of some of Jackson's theories. On the other 
hand, Clay, the leader of the northern Whigs, wished to 
restore the bank and high tariffs. The result was a 
great struggle between Clay and Tyler, which drove the 
The breach latter away from the Whigs and over toward 
QaTand tne Democrats. Tyler was victorious on the 
Tyler. questions at issue, and the attempts to re- 

store the bank and high tariffs were decisively defeated. 
Three matters not connected with the national politics 

here deserve mention. 
In Rhode Island, the old 
charter of 1662 (§ 53) 
was still in force. Its 
grant of suffrage was 
felt to be too limited, 
and its distribution of 
representatives in the 
legislature had come to 
be unfair. In 1841, a 
new constitution was 
adopted, but by masjs 
conventions, not by 
those who were entitled 
to vote under the ancient charter. Accordingly, when 
a new governor, Dorr, was elected under the new con- 
Dorr's Re- stitution, the old government refused to ac- 
knowledge him. Another new constitution, 
adopted with more regard to law, was set to work in 
1843. Meanwhile, Dorr, who had tried to seize the 
state arsenal, was convicted of treason, but pardoned. 
This affair was known as Dorr's Rebellion. 

1 From Williams's Presidents of the United States. 




m 



JOHN TYLER.l 



§ 125. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 329 

Troubles in New York grew out of some tenants of 
the old patroon estates (§ 59) refusing to pay their rent, 
which was the veriest trifle in amount, — one The Anti- 
day's work in a year, with three or four fowls Renters - 
and a barrel or so of flour. But it was a queer relic of 
old European feudal customs, and was unpopular. The 
disturbances came to an end in 1846. 

A' man named Joseph Smith had shown a book which 
he said had been revealed to him supernaturally. It is 
known as the Book of Mormon, and its style was sug- 
gested by the English version of the Old Tes- The Mor- 
tament. With this document in hand, Smith mons " 
founded a religious sect which, in 1840, made a settle- 
ment at Nauvoo, in Illinois. In 1844, the neighbors 
killed Smith, and by 1846 his followers were driven 
from the state. After some vicissitudes, a company of 
these Mormons, led by Brigham Young, made their soli- 
tary way out to the Salt Lake valley, where, by skillful 
irrigation, they converted a desert spot into a garden. 
There they founded Salt Lake City, and, for a while, 
established polygamy. 

By the treaty of 1783, which ended the Revolutionary 
War, some uncertainty had been left as to the boundary 
between Maine and the adjacent British prov- 
inces. This and sundry other matters of dis- burton 
pute with Great Britain were satisfactorily set- 
tled in a treaty negotiated, in 1842, by Daniel Webster 
and Lord Ashburton. 

The Oregon question, which the Ashburton treaty did 

not settle, gives us a vivid idea of the wonderful _. n 

° t t The Ore- 

westward expansion of the United States since gon ques- 

the end of the last war with England, in 181 5. 

Both Great Britain and the United States laid claim to 

the portion of the Pacific coast between California, which 



330 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

belonged to Mexico, and Alaska, which belonged to Rus- 
sia. Since 1818, it had been held as a sort of neutral 
ground, subject to the joint control of Great Britain and 
the United States. But by 1842 the American stream 
of westward migration was just beginning to overflow' 
into the beautiful and fertile Oregon country, and so it 
became a serious question to whom that country should 
belong. At first, the Americans claimed the whole, up to 
the parallel of 54 40', the southern boundary of Alaska. 
For a time the war cry was " Fifty-four forty or fight," 
but at length, in 1846, it was agreed to divide the terri- 
tory at the forty-ninth parallel. The northern portion 
became British Columbia ; the southern portion now 
comprises the three noble states of Oregon, Washing- 
ton, and Idaho, with a considerable area in Montana 
and Wyoming. 

126. The Controversy over Slavery Extension. It 
was becoming clear that the North had much more 
room at command for planting new free states than the 
South for planting new slave states. In 1836, Arkansas 
was admitted as a slave state, and, in 1837, Michigan 
was admitted to balance it. Then the South 

Slavery , 

expansion had no more room for expansion, for the Indian 
Territory 1 blocked up all the space left south 
of the Missouri Compromise line ; whereas, to the north 
of that line there was room enough for a dozen states. 
Manifestly, the North was destined soon to outweigh the 
South in Congress, and the South feared that sooner or 
later the North would attempt to abolish slavery. 

This fear was natural. The spirit of reforming 

1 Into this territory, which was organized in 1834, had been moved vari- 
ous tribes from east of the Mississippi River. Some, such as the Chero- 
kees, were fast becoming civilized. Some troubles had been connected 
with the ousting of Indians from their old lands, as the Black Hawk War 
in the Northwest, in 1832, and the Seminole War in Florida, in 1835. 



5 i?.6. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



331 



abuses of all sorts was grow- 
ing ; and along with the im- 
provement of prisons and 
asylums and poorhouses, 
along with reform of the 
criminal law and the growth 
of charitable societies, as- 
saults began to be made 
upon negro slavery. The 
little band of abolitionists 
began an agitation which 
they were determined should 
not stop so long TheaboH . 
as slavery endured. Zionists. 
The leader of the abolition- 
ists was a printer and editor, 
William Lloyd Garrison, who 
was ably supported by the 
silver-tongued orator, Wen- 
dell Phillips, and the learned 
and powerful preacher, 
Theodore Parker. At 
Washington, in the House 
of Representatives, the sub- 
ject of slavery was seldom 
allowed to rest in quiet ; for 
Ex-President John Ouincy 
Adams was a member of the 
House from 1831 till his 
death in 1848, and the more 
the southern members tried 
to stop the discussion of 
slavery the more ruthlessly 
he carried it on. 




WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON. 




THEODORE PARKER. 





Emerson. 







Holmes. 




Hawthorne 



Prescott. 



§ 126. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



JOJ 



Moreover, America was beginning to acquire literary 
eminence. Before 1830, Bryant, Irving, and Eminent 
Cooper had become distinguished, and Poe and wnters - 
Hawthorne had appeared on the scene. Within the next 
half dozen years there followed Whittier, Longfellow, 
Holmes, Prescott, and Emerson. Some of these writers 
attacked slavery, the feeling of all was hostile to it, and 
such an intellectual and moral awakening as they took 
part in was sure to become fatal to it. 

The southern people, therefore, in self-defense felt 
driven to acquire more territory. The republic of 
Texas was close at hand, a fine country as big as the 
Austro-Hungarian Empire, with Italy and Switzerland 
thrown in. Texas had once belonged to Mexico, but, in 
1820, Moses Austin, a native of Connecticut, 
had obtained a grant of land there, and within 
a few years more than 20,000 people from the United 
States had settled in 
Texas. The government 
of Mexico was regarded 
as oppressive, and these 
Texans declared their 
state independent. In 
1836, their commander, 
Samuel Houston, totally 
defeated the Mexicans 
under Santa Anna, in 
the battle of San Jacinto, 
and the independence of 
Texas was achieved. 
Next year, she asked for admission to the American 
Union, but nothing was done about it, and for some 
years she was known as the "Lone Star State." At 

1 From a print in Alaman's Mejico, v. 687. 




SANTA ANNA. 1 



334 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XIV. 




SAMUEL HOUSTON. 1 



length, in 1844, the ques- 
tion came up again, and 
with it the slavery ques- 
tion. The South was de- 
termined to annex Texas, 
while northern opponents 
of slavery were opposed 
to the annexation. 

The little anti-slavery, 
or " Liberty," party nom- 
inated James Birney for 
the presidency, and the 
Whigs nominated Henry 
Clay. The Democrats 
would naturally have 
nominated Van Buren, but many of Tyler's pro-slavery 
Whigs had gone over to the Democratic party, making it 
more pro-slavery than before. Van Buren was 
tionof opposed to the extension of slavery, so the 
southern delegates succeeded in defeating his 
nomination and putting James Knox Polk, of Tennessee, 
in his place. Among American presidents, Polk was the 
earliest instance of what politicians call a " dark horse," 
a candidate not widely known to the public, and kept 
concealed until the last moment. Birney got no elec- 
toral votes, Clay got 105, Polk got 170, and was elected. 
The news of Polk's nomination, sent from Baltimore 
The tele- to Washington, was the first message sent in 
this country by the electro-magnetic telegraph, 



graph. 



which, after some years of partial success in Germany 
and England, was at length perfected in America, in 
1844, by Joseph Henry and Samuel Morse. 

1 From a picture in Niles's South America and Mexico, Hartford, 
1837. 



§127- 



WESTWARD^ EXPANSION 



335 



^JDolfe'sf jaummtetratton.- 

Democratic : 1845-/849. 

127. The War with Mexico. Texas and Florida 
were admitted to the Union in 1845, but they were 
soon balanced by two free states, Iowa, in 1846, and 
Wisconsin, in 1848. It was 
provided that, at any future 
time, with the consent of its 
own people, Texas might 
be divided into four states. 
But more southern territory 
was needed, and an occa- 
sion for winning it was 
already offered. The people 
of Texas held that their 
state extended southwest- 
ward as far as the Rio 
Grande, but the Mexican 
government refused to admit that it extended further 
than the Nueces River. By President Polk's order, 
General Zachary Taylor, with 4,000 men, marched in 
and took possession of the disputed strip of land be- 
tween the two rivers. A Mexican army attacked him 
there, early in 1846, and was routed in two battles at 
Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. This was the be- 
ginning of a war which lasted a year and a half. Taylor 
invaded Mexico and held the northern portion of the 
country. Kearney took possession of New Mexico, in- 
cluding Arizona ; a small force, under Fremont, aided 
by the fleet, occupied California ; and, finally, General 
Scott, landing at Vera Cruz, fought several obstinate 

1 From Jenkins's Life of James Knox Polk. 




JAMES KNOX POLK. 1 



336 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

battles, and ended the struggle by capturing the city 
of Mexico, September 14, 1847. The United States 
soldiers vanquished the Mexicans wherever they found 
them and in whatever numbers. Thus, on one occasion, 
when Taylor had sent reinforcements to Scott, reducing 
his own army to about 5,000 men, Santa Anna suddenly 
attacked him at Buena Vista with 20,000, and was badly 
defeated. It was in Mexico that most of the great 
commanders in our Civil War had their first experience 
in regular military operations. 

128. The New Territory Acquired from Mexico. 
When peace was made with Mexico, in February, 1848, 
it added to the United States an enormous territory, 
equal in area to Germany, France, and Spain added to- 
gether. Such a result had been foreseen, and ever 
since the war began it had been a question what should 
be done about allowing slavery in states formed out of 
this new territory. In 1846, David Wilmot, a Demo- 
cratic member of Congress from Pennsylvania, proposed 
that slavery should be forever prohibited in the 
mot Pro- whole of the territory that was to be acquired 
from Mexico. This was the famous Wilmot 
Proviso, and it marks the turning point in the history 
of slavery ; for, although it failed to pass both houses 
of Congress, it announced a policy that was soon to be 
victoriovis. In point of fact, no new slave state was 
ever made after Texas. 

The westward migration of people rushed into Cali- 
fornia much sooner and faster than anybody had ex- 
pected. Early in 1848, a workman, who was digging a 
mill race in the Sacramento valley, observed that the 
soil contained bright particles of gold. It was 
not long before it was found that gold abounded 
in that gravelly soil. People began to rush to Cali- 



§ '2 S - 



WESTWARD EXPANSION. 



337 



fornia from all parts of the world, in' the hope of sudden 
wealth. There were many ruffians among them, but 
few or no negroes. In a year's time the population of 
California was large enough for a state, and a strong 
local government was needed to suppress the thieves 
and blackguards. For want of such a govern- ,. ., 

... & Vigilance 

ment, honest citizens were obliged to organ- commit- 
ize vigilance committees to deal quickly and 
sharply with criminals. In 1849, tne people of Cali- 
fornia applied to Congress for admission to the Union, 
with a constitution forbidding slavery. 




SAN FRANCISCO IN 1849, FROM THE HEAD OF CLAY STREET. I 

Meanwhile ' came the election of a new president. 
The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass, of Michigan, 
and the Whigs nominated Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana, 
the hero of Buena Vista. A third party, made up of 

1 From The Annals oj San Francisco- 



338 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch, XIV 

anti-slavery Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and aboli- 
Eiection of tionists, was known as the Free-Soil party. It 
184a nominated Martin Van Buren for president 
and Charles Francis Adams (son of John Quincy 
Adams) for vice-president. Cass received 127 electoral 
votes, Taylor received 163, and was elected. 

topics and questions. 

115. The Close of a Warlike Period. 

1. What fighting came to an end in 181 5 ? 

2. Show how the world has been more peaceful since. 

3. What new interests came in with the peace of 1815 ? 

116. The Era of Good Feeling. 

1. The national party now in power. 

2. The death of the Federalist party. 

3. The good feeling during Monroe's presidency. 

4. Monroe as a man. 

117. Monroe's Foreign Policy. 

1. The purchase of Florida. 

2. The object of the Holy Alliance. 

3. Why the United States feared it. 

4. The doctrine of Monroe. 

5. The effect of its declaration. 

1 18. The Unexpected Growth of Negro Slavery. 

1 . Thirty years of progress. 

2. The westward movement. 

3. The multiplication of steamboats, 

4. New states in consequence. 

5. The balance of slave states and free. 

6. American slavery before the Revolution. 

7. Slavery in the Constitution. 

8. Events that gave new life to slavery. 

9. How it was to be defended against possible attacks. 

10. The northwest territory. 

11. The Ordinance of 1787. 

12. The line between freedom and slavery. 

13. The Missouri Compromise. 

14. The election of 1824. 



Or. XIV. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 339 

119. New Issues and a New Division of Parties. 

1. The Erie Canal and its fruits. 

2. Opposing views about internal improvements. 

3. A protective tariff. 

4. A tariff for revenue. 

5. A tariff for revenue with incidental protection. 

6. Opposing views about the tariff. 

7. Opposing views about the United States Bank. 

8. The views of the National Republicans. 

9. The views of the Democrats. 

10. High tariff victories, and their effect on the South. 

11. The election of 1828. 

120. The Spoils System. 

1. The growing view about rotation in office. 

2. The first application of this principle. 

3. Removals from office before 1829 and after. 

4. The bad results of the system. 

5. The origin of the name of the system. 

121. Nullification. 

1. What state right did Calhoun now claim? 

2. What consequence of this doctrine was feared ? 

3. Tell about Webster's reply to Hayne. 

4. How did Jackson disappoint the nullifiers ? 

5. How did Jackson reveal to them his attitude ? 

6. Give an account of the election of 1832. 

7. What did South Carolina do about the tariff of 1832? 

8. In what way was the crisis met ? 

9. How was the danger averted ? 

122. Overthrow of the United States Bank. 

1. Jackson's treatment of the bank. 

2. A quarrel that sprang from this treatment. 

3. The resolution of censure. 

4. The attitude of the National Republicans toward Jackson. 

5. The attitude of the States Rights men toward Jackson. 

6. A new name for these two groups. 

7. The election of 1836. 

1 23. A New Era of Progress. 

1. George Stephenson. 

2. His locomotive. 

3. The blessings of railroads. 

4. Railroad building from 1830 to i860. 



/ 



340 



THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 



5. Ocean traffic. 

6. Labor-saving machinery. 

7. New York and Chicago. 

8. Friction matches. 

9. How these matches gave a name to a great party. 

124. The Commercial Panic of 1837. 

1. What four causes led up to this panic ? 

2. Describe the crash. 

3. What cure of these evils did some clamor for ? 

4. What was Van Buren's attitude toward the matter? 

5. What was the principal achievement of his administration? 

6. Give an account of the election of 1840. 

125. Leading Events in Tyler's Administration. 

1. The accession of Tyler to the presidency. 

2. The cause of the struggle between Clay and Tyler. 

3. The issue of the controversy. 

4. Dorr's Rebellion. 

5. The Anti-Renters. 

6. Joseph Smith and the Mormons. 

7. The Ashburton treaty. 

8. Oregon down to 1842. 

9. The Oregon agreement of 1846. 

126. The Controversy over Slavery Extension. 

1. Arkansas and Michigan. 

2. The prospects for new free states and new slave. 

3. What the South feared, and why. 

4. The band of abolitionists. 

5. Eminent writers, and what they thought of slavery. 

6. United States settlers in Texas. 

7. The winning of Texan independence. 

8. How Texas came into United States politics. 

9. Candidates and party views in the election of 1844. 
10. The first message by telegraph. 

127. The War with Mexico. 

1. Two slave states admitted and two free. 
2." The dispute over the Texas boundary. 

3. The acts that began the war. 

4. The campaigns of Taylor, Kearney, and Fremont. 

5. The city of Mexico captured. 

6. The battle of Buena Vista. 



Ch. XIV. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 34.I 

128. The New Territory Acquired from Mexico. 

1. The magnitude of this addition. 

2. The great question about it. 

3. Wilmot's proposition. 

4. The discovery of gold. 

5. The effect of this discovery upon California. 

6. Vigilance committees. 

7. The election of 1848. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. What are some of the evils of war ? Is there any good to off- 

set these evils ? If so, what is it? Are nations that desire 
peace ever forced into war ? If two men have a difficulty 
with each other, what are feasible ways of settling it without 
resorting to violence ? Are any of these ways applicable to 
nations that do not agree ? Why is it more difficult for na- 
tions than for individuals to arrive at peaceable settlements ? 
Mention some difficulties of an international sort that have 
been peaceably disposed of. 

2. As civilization advances, will there be a growing or a diminish- 

ing tendency to engage in war, to expend money for it, to 
magnify its fighters, and to glory in its victories ? What is 
civilization? Mention some country whose civilization is of 
a low grade, and tell why it is low. What are the signs of 
advancing civilization? Does an increasing earnestness for 
peace carry with it necessarily the reduction of armies and 
of wars ? Why are the nations of Europe so heavily armed ? 
May not armies and navies increase the likelihood of peace ? 

3. What kind of aggression has been at the bottom of most In- 

dian wars? What is it to own land in severalty? What 
is it to own land in common ? How did the Indians hold 
it ? How do white people hold it ? Does the fact that white 
people make better use of the land than the Indians, millions 
occupying it where the Indians numbered only thousands, 
justify them in dispossessing the Indians? Read Black 
Hawk's own account of how the Black Hawk War, in 1832, 
was caused ; also his speech at his surrender (Old South 
Leaflets, eighth series, 1890, No. 6). Cite instances in which 
white people have tried to be just to Indians whose lands 
they have taken. 

4. Read Longfellow's The Arsenal at Springfield. What are the 



342 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV. 

peace sentiments expressed there? Do you like them? 
Read Whittier's The Angels of Buena Vista. Quote senti- 
ments of peace from other poets. What gives to war its 
glamour ? What is calculated to dispel this glamour ? 

5. What great advantage in war and navy expenses has the United 

States over the nations of Europe ? 

6. Show how it was more difficult for southerners to oppose slav- 

ery than northerners. Show how self-interest had much 
to do with making the northern states free and the south- 
ern slave. 

7. Give the principal facts about the ownership of Florida from 

its first settlement. 

8. In what political parties has a nullifying, or seceding, spirit at 

different times been shown ? In each case what has been 
the cause ? 

9. Why did the South desire a kind of balance in admitting slave 

states and free ? 

10. What was the pro-slavery objection to the Missouri Compro- 

mise ? What was the anti-slavery objection ? 

11. For what internal or national improvements does the United 

States government provide to-day? To what internal im- 
provements once advocated does it give no attention to-day ? 

12. What enterprises or kinds of business is it proper for the United 

States government to carry on? What is it manifestly un- 
wise for it to undertake? What private enterprises are 
thought by some people to be fair subjects for government 
control ? Give some reasons for each answer. 

13. Mention some objections to the Spoils System. What sort of 

offices should be held during competency and good behavior ? 
Why ? Should they be distributed as political rewards ? 
Should they be filled impartially on some basis of merit? 
What officials may properly be changed as administrations 
change, and why ? 

14. Assign striking passages from Webster's reply to Hayne to be 

recited or read. What use is there in declaiming such pas- 
sages ? 

15. What is a veto ? Does it necessarily defeat a measure ? Why 

should the president be given such power ? Who gave it to 
him ? The authority for your answer ? 

16. What is anthracite coal ? What other kinds are there ? What 

has coal to do with United States history ? 



Ch. XIV. WESTWARD EXPANSION. 343 

17. Suppose a business man makes larger promises to pay money 

than he can meet, what is the effect upon the value of his 
promises ? Substitute a corporation, a city, a state, the 
United States, for the business man, and then answer the 
question. 

18. What kind of business may a bank do (a) with loans, (b) with 

deposits, and (c) with paper money? What sort of care 
ought it to exercise about loaning its funds? What duty 
does it owe to its depositors ? Read a modern bank note, 
and observe what it really is. May such notes be issued 
without limit? What have bank questions had to do with 
our history ? 

19. What was the leading feature of the old European feudal sys- 

tem? Under this system was the land discovered in Amer- 
ica by Englishmen regarded as belonging to the discoverers 
themselves, to the English nation, or to the English sover- 
eign? Explain and illustrate. 

20. Find anti-slavery poems in the writings of Longfellow, Lowell, 

Holmes, and others. 

21. When are compromises desirable? Is it possible to organize 

the government of a great people without them ? 

22. In accordance with the following plan, make out a table of suc- 

cessful and unsuccessful political parties for the eleven presi- 
dential terms from Washington to Polk, inclusive : 



PRESIDENTS. 


ELECTED BV WHOM. 


OPPOSED BY WHOM. 









What were the leading views of the successful parties men- 
tioned above ? Of the unsuccessful parties ? Mention 
one or more of these old views, or policies, that are still sub- 
jects of political discussion ? What ones have become estab- 
lished as undisputed parts of the administration of national 
affairs? What ones have failed to receive national sanc- 
tion? 
Z3. Numerous interesting topics are either lightly touched in the 
text or omitted altogether, such, for example, as the follow- 
ing: 



3/]/] THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XIV 

a. The Seminole War. 

b. Cotton and the cotton gin. 

c. The life of Henry Clay. 

d. The life of John C. Calhoun. 

e. The life of Andrew Jackson. 
/ The life of Daniel Webster. 
g. The Erie Canal. 

h. Labor-saving machines. 

i. The removal of the Cherokees. 

j. The life of any of the writers mentioned in § 126. 

k. Events in the war for Texan independence. 

/. The vigilance committees of California. 
The teacher may add freely to the list. Let the pupil take one of 
these topics for study, find out for himself sources of information, 
and make an oral or written report upon it. However full the read- 
ing may be, the report should be brief and simple. Indeed, the 
exigencies of the class room may make it desirable for the teacher 
to devise some simple form of certificate for the pupil to fill out, in 
which it is enough for him to tell what subject he has been looking 
up, what book and writer he has consulted, and what matter, by 
pages, chapters, or otherwise, he has read. 



CHAPTER XV. 

SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 1850-1865. 

HDfce 2CaplopjFillmore #Dmint0tratton* 

Whig: 1849-1853. 

129. Review of the Situation as to Slavery. The 
story of the disputes over slavery, which led to the Civil 
War, is inseparably connected with the story of the 
westward expansion of the United States. At the point 
at which we have now arrived, it is desirable to pause 
for a moment and take a brief review of the situation, 
in order that we may see clearly how one event led to 
another. 

It will be remembered that in 1787, when our Federal 
Constitution was framed, the territorial domain of the 
United States was bounded on the west by the Missis- 
sippi River. In the region north of the Ohio River, 
negro slavery was prohibited by the Ordinance Areas of 
of 1787. The territory lying south of the Ohio Shvery 
River and west of the original states of Vir- in v % ?' 
ginia, the two Carolinas, and Georgia, at first belonged 
to those states, or was claimed by them ; and when 
those states ceded their claims to the United States, it 
was with the understanding that the United States 
should not interfere with the existing custom of slavery 
in that region. The Ohio River was thus the dividing 
line, north of which slavery was prohibited and south 
of which it was allowed. 



346 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

Our Federal Constitution nowhere uses the word 
" slave," but in the three places where it refers to slavery 
Conces- it uses some other expression. 1 Three conces- 
siavery°in sions were made to the slaveholders, which it 
Confutu- al was believed would prevent any occasion for 
tion. disputes. First, in apportioning representation 

in Congress, the slave states were allowed to count 
three fifths of their slaves as population. This arrange- 
ment increased the weight of the southern states in the 
national house of representatives. For example, if a 
southern state had half as many blacks as whites in. its 
population, then every 10,000 whites in that state would 
count as 10,000 plus three fifths of the 5,000 blacks ; in 
other words, 10,000 whites in that state would balance 
13,000 whites in a non-slaveholding state. In South 
Carolina there were at least as many blacks as whites ; 
therefore in South Carolina every 10,000 whites counted 
for as much as 10,000 plus three fifths of 10,000, that 
is to say, as much as 16,000 whites in Massachusetts. 
Secondly, the national government was not to be allowed 
to prohibit the importation of slaves from Africa before 
the year 1808. Thirdly, it was stipulated that any fugi- 
tive slave, escaping into a free state, should not thereby 
acquire freedom, but should be delivered up to his mas- 
ter on demand. 

These concessions to slaveholders made the Feder- 
alist party for some time strong in South Carolina. 
They were quite generally supposed to have settled the 
slavery question once for all. But the purchase of the 

1 Thus in article I., section ii., clause 3, after speaking of " free per- 
sons," it goes on to mention " other persons." In article I., section ix., 
clause 1, we read of "such persons as any of the states . . . shall think 
proper to admit." In article IV., section ii., clause 3, occurs the phrase 
" person held to service or labor." But in the thirteenth amendment, 
added in 1865;, abolishing slavery, the word " slavery" is used. 



§ 129- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 347 



Louisiana territory in 1803 (§ no) prepared the way 
for disputes, and the first dispute came, as Effect of 
we have seen, when the state of Missouri was *^1 pur- sl * 
about to come into the Union. It was settled chase - 
in 1820 by the Missouri Compromise (§ 118), which pro- 
vided that thenceforth, westward to the Rocky Moun- 
tain boundary, slave states might be formed from United 
States territory south of the parallel of 36 30' (the 
southern boundary of Missouri), but that none but free 
states could be formed north of that line. 

By this compromise the South gained the point im- 
mediately in dispute, the admission of Missouri as a 
slave state; but it left the advantage in the why the 
long run greatly in favor of the North. Below comjS 
the compromise line there was room only for mise faded 

r -'to satisfy 

Arkansas and one good-sized state to the west the South. 
of it, 1 and in 1834 this latter space was appropriated as 
Indian Territory; whereas the Missouri Territory, above 
the compromise line, was so vast that nine large states 
(with parts of others) have since been carved from it. 
Therefore in order to maintain the balance between 
North and South, as the westward expansion went on, 
the slaveholders felt it necessary to acquire more ter- 
ritory. This need was partly met by the annexation of 
Texas, and there followed the war with Mexico and the 
conquest of the vast country between Texas and Oregon 
from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. At 
the same time the settlement of the Oregon question 
(§ 125) added greatly to the area available for the North. 
This new expansion to the westward at once re-opened 
the whole slavery question, and the resulting disputes 
went on without ceasing until the defeat of the South 
in the great Civil War put an end to slavery forever. 

1 See the colored map opposite page 311. 



348 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



Effect of 
the Mexi- 
can War. 



The question was at first made a pressing one by the 
discovery of gold in California. The sudden 
and rapid peopling of that country made it 
necessary without delay to consider its petition 
to be admitted to the Union. Resort was had to com- 
promise,, as before, but the situation was fast becoming 
such as to make a satisfactory compromise impossible. 

130. The Compromises of 1850. At first some peo- 
ple had thought that the slavery question could be finally 
settled by prolonging the Missouri Compromise 
sion of Cai- line to the Pacific coast, and allowing slavery 
to the south of it. Any such scheme was 
shown to be impossible when California applied for 

admission as a free state. 
A considerable part of 
California lies south of the 
parallel of 36 30'. If it 
were to be admitted as a 
free state, the South de- 
manded some kind of equi- 
valent. After long and 
heated debate, the ques- 
tion was settled by the 
adoption of a group of 
compromises proposed by 
the venerable Henry Clay, 
whose Missouri Compro- 
mise had for thirty years done so much to preserve the 
union in peace. 

The most essential points in the compromises were 
thus balanced against each other: (1) California was 
admitted as a free state, and, in return, two new ter- 
ritories — Utah (including Nevada) and New Mexico 

1 From Howard's General Taylor. 




ZACHARY TAYLOR.l 



SLAVERY AXD SECESSION. 



349 




MILLARD FILLMORE. 1 



(including Arizona) — were organized without the Wil- 

mot Proviso ; (2) The slave trade was abolished in the 

District of Columbia, and, 

in return, a stringent law 

was passed for the arrest 

of fugitive slaves in the 

northern states. Many 

people believed that these 

compromises would set 

the slavery question at 

rest. 

In July, 1850, President 
Taylor died, and Vice- 
President Millard Fill- 
more took his place. 
There was nothing more 
of moment in the course of this administration, except 
that a party of filibusters invaded Cuba, in Mi]lard 
185 1, in the hope of annexing it to the United Fillmore. 
States. They were defeated, and their leader, Lopez, 
was executed at Havana. 

In 1852, the Whigs nominated Winfield Scott, the 
other hero of the Mexican War, and the Democrats 
nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, a second 
instance of a "dark horse." The Free -Soil m , 

The elec- 

party nominated another New Hampshire man, tion of 
John Parker Hale, who obtained no electoral 
votes. There was to be a wonderful change in the next 
two years, as we shall see. Scott obtained 42 electoral 
votes, Pierce obtained 254, and was elected. This was 
the last appearance of the Whig party under that name 
in a presidential election. 

1 From Thomas & Lathrop's Biography of Millard Fillmore. 



35o 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch.XV. 




pierced 0Dmmt£tratton* 

Democratic : 1853-1857. 

131. The Slavery Question Uppermost. The Mis- 
souri Compromise had brought a long rest to the coun- 
try, but the compromises 
of 1850 stirred up strife 
more bitter than had been 
known before. The elec- 
tion of Pierce to the 
presidency came at the 
opening of a new era 
in the slavery question. 
Webster and Clay had 
just died, and in their 
place were to be seen, 
among the foremost fig- 
ures at the North, Seward 
of New York, Chase of 
Ohio, and Sumner of Massachusetts, men prepared to 
take a bolder stand against slavery. Calhoun had also 
been removed by death, and among the southern leaders, 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was coming to the front. 
The first source of irritation in the new compromises 
was the Fugitive Slave Law. It is true that the pur- 
pose of this measure was simply to enforce a provision 
which had always formed a part of the Federal Consti- 
tution. It was distinctly provided in the Constitution 
that a runaway slave, escaping to a free state, must be 
surrendered to his lawful master on demand ; but legis- 
lation was needed to determine the manner in which 
this provision should be enforced. In 1793, it was en- 

1 From Hawthorne's Life of Franklin Pierce. 



FRANKLIN PIERCE. 1 



§131. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 35 I 

acted by Congress that a man claiming a fugitive slave 
might prove his ownership by making affidavit before 
either a United States court or a magistrate _ 

Personal 

of the city or town where the arrest was made, Liberty 
and local officers, such as sheriffs or consta- 
bles, might have custody of the prisoner. But with the 
growth of anti-slavery sentiment at the North, as slave- 
catching grew more and more unpopular, several north- 
ern states passed "personal liberty" laws for the pro- 
tection of negroes from persons claiming them as slaves. 
New York, in 1840, passed an act securing jury trial to 
such negroes. Massachusetts and Vermont, in 1843, 
passed laws prohibiting state officers from taking part 
in the surrender of fugitives, and forbidding the use of 
their jails for the detention of such persons. Similar 
laws were passed in 1847, by Pennsylvania, and in 1848. 
by Rhode Island. 

These "personal liberty" laws annoyed the slave- 
holders, and the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was devised 
in such manner as to counteract them. By this law 
United States commissioners were appointed, with full 
powers of judges, for hearing claims to fugitive . 

slaves, and the custody and surrender of such tive slave 
fugitives were entrusted, not to state officers, 
but to United States marshals. Thus the United States 
government no longer called upon some single State 
to surrender an alleged fugitive within its limits, but it 
undertook to send its own officers into any State to 
seize upon any colored person against whom a claim 
might be made and to send him away into slavery. For 
the alleged fugitive was not allowed a jury trial ; the 
claimant was not bound to prove that he was a run- 
away ; a simple affidavit was enough. 

It has been argued that this refusal of a trial by jury 



352 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

made the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional. For 
the alleged runaway must be either a slave or a free 
man. If a slave, he was property worth more than 
twenty dollars, and in all claims to property exceeding 
that amount the Constitution (amendment VII.) guar- 
antees the right of trial by jury. If he was a free man. 
his right to be tried by jury in a case affecting his life 
or liberty was one of those common law rights reserved 
by the Constitution (amendment X.) to the people. 

In response to the Fugitive Slave Law, several north- 
ern states passed new and stronger " personal liberty " 
laws, some of which went to the very verge of nullifying 
an act of Congress. The first attempts at arresting 
runaway slaves under this act excited great and growing 
wrath at the North, and on many occasions there were 
riots and rescues. Two of the most notable cases were 
in Boston. In 185 1, a negro named Shadrach was taken 
from the marshal's custody by a mob consisting largely 
of negroes, and he succeeded in escaping to Canada. 
In 1854, Anthony Burns, a fugitive from Virginia, was 

arrested in Boston, and confined in the court- 
Case of 
Anthony house under a strong guard. A meeting was 

held at Faneuil Hall to consider whether the 
surrender of Burns should be permitted, and meanwhile 
a party of citizens, led by a clergyman, Thomas Went- 
worth Higginson, 1 made an attempt to rescue the pris- 
oner. A door of the court-house was battered in, and 
one of the deputy-marshals was killed, but the assault 
was unsuccessful. The United States commissioner 
ordered that Burns should be surrendered, and he was 

1 Col. Higginson, who afterward in the Civil War commanded the 
first regiment of negro freedmen mustered into the national service, and 
has long been eminent as a man of letters, was in 1854 pastor of a church 
in Worcester, Mass. 



§ »3»- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



353 



sent on board a United States revenue cutter. He was 
escorted by a strong military guard through streets 
filled with an angry crowd, and on the wharf a fight 
seemed about beginning, when the Rev. Daniel Foster 
exclaimed, " Let us pray ! " Instantly the vast multi- 
tude uncovered their heads and listened in devout si- 
lence while poor Burns was hurried on board ship. 

Probably the most effective response to the Fugitive 
Slave Law was the publication, in 1852, of Uncle Tom's 
Cabin, by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. Of this novel 
more than half a million 
copies were sold within 
the next five years in the 
United States alone, and 
it was translated into more 
than twenty European and 
several Asiatic languages. 
Read everywhere by old 
and young, it doubtless did 
more than anything else 
ever printed to strengthen 
and spread the feeling of 
hostility to slavery. Prob- 
ably more slaves escaped 

and fewer were returned to their masters than before 
the passage of the law of 1850. 

Secret understandings were kept up between anti- 
slavery men from town to town, so that a fugitive slave, 
who had once got across the Ohio River, or Mason and 
Dixon's line, would be stealthily passed along from one 
protector to another as far as Canada, where no slave 
hunter could reach him. This sort of arrangement used 
to be called the "underground railroad." 

1 After an engraving by R. Young, from an original portrait taken 
about the time when Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. 




HARRIET BEECHER STOWE.l 



354 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

The desire for more slave territory was shown in fili- 
bustering expeditions in the Gulf of Mexico. The at- 
tempt of Lopez upon Cuba has been already mentioned. 
From 1855 to i860, William Walker, an adventurer from 
Tennessee, made expeditions against Nicaragua 
tend Mani- and Honduras, but was finally captured and 
shot. But what was most remarkable was the 
Ostend Manifesto. In 1854, the United States minis- 
ters to Great Britain, France, and Spain met together 
at Ostend, in Belgium, and agreed in substance to report 
to President Pierce that, in their opinion, the United 
States ought to have Cuba, even if it should be neces- 
sary to seize it by force in case of Spain's unwillingness 
to sell it. 

132. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. If Cuba had been 
added to the Union as a slave state, it might have served 
as a counterweight to California. But the slaveholders 
had more to hope from a repeal of the Missouri Com- 
promise, which would open up all the territories to the 
spread of slavery. Some southern statesmen had always 
held the Missouri Compromise to be unconstitutional, 
and believed that Congress had no right to meddle with 
the question of slavery in the territories, any more than 
in the states. 

But the fatal attack upon the Missouri Compromise 
came not from the South, but from a northern Derao- 
Senator cratic leader. Stephen Arnold Douglas was 
Douglas. one f th e senators from Illinois. For some 
years he had felt an interest in the wild region west of 
Iowa, then called the Platte country, from its principal 
river. California was growing rapidly, and the easiest 
route for people migrating thither lay through this 
country, being the route since followed by the Union 
Pacific railroad. Dousrlas wished to have a territorial 



§i3 2 - 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



355 




government set up for the Platte country, and on this 
occasion he thought he saw a chance for allaying the 
excitement about slavery. 
Why this perpetual fuss 
about letting slavery into 
the territories or keeping 
it out ? Why not let the 
settlers in the territories 
decide such matters for 
themselves ? When peo- 
ple enough have settled 
in a territory to apply for 
admission to the Union, 
let them decide for them- 
selves whether they will 
come in as a slave state 

or as a free state. This theory of Douglas 2 was called 
the doctrine of " squatter sovereignty ; " not 

n ° J ' Squatter 

Congress, but the " squatters were to be the sover- 
supreme authority on the great question. It eign y ' 
was the principle of "local option" applied to slavery. 

In 1854, Douglas brought in a bill for organizing two 
territorial governments as the territories of Kansas and 
Nebraska, on the principle of squatter sovereignty. 
Both territories lay north of 36 30', and, therefore, the 
Missouri Compromise had forever prohibited slavery in 
them. In spite of this prohibition, the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill was passed, thus repealing the Missouri Compromise, 
and establishing squatter sovereignty in its place. 

Many of those who voted for the Kansas-Nebraska 
bill believed that this great concession to the slavehold- 

1 From Woodward's History of the United States. 

2 Douglas did not invent the doctrine of squatter sovereignty, but was 
first to adopt and apply it on a great scale. 



STEPHEN ARNOLD DOUGLAS.l 



356 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

ers would at last put a stop to the agitation. Nothing 
could have been more short-sighted. In point of fact, 
it immediately solidified North and South 
publican against each other, and led speedily to the great 
pary " Civil War. In the course of 1854 and 1855, 

all northern men of whatever party, who were resolved 
that slavery should extend no further, drew together 
under the name of "Anti-Nebraska men." They soon 
became organized into a party with the name " Re- 
publican." The party was made up of anti- slavery 
Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and Free - Soilers, and 
the principle upon which it was based was that of the 
Wilmot Proviso, the absolute prohibition of slavery in 
the territories. It did not propose to attack slavery 
in the slave states, and for this reason the abolitionists 
generally remained aloof from it. Wh en the anti-slavery 
elements were taken out of the Democratic party, it 
became more and more subservient to southern policy, 
and gradually added to its ranks the pro-slavery Whigs. 
In those days, the Republicans were always called by 
their opponents "Black Republicans," as having an 
affinity for men with black skins. 

Heretofore, settlers had moved out to the western 
frontier for their own private reasons. Now it had 
become an object with politicians to hurry settlers for- 
ward, and the competition between North and South 
„, „ , soon led to blows. The struggle took place 

The fight . °° 

for Kan- in Kansas because that territory was the near- 
est to the slave states. From Missouri and 
Arkansas squatters went in, while, on the other hand, 
anti-slavery societies in the North subscribed money to 
fit out parties of emigrants. The first trial of squatter 
sovereignty began in bloody fights between pro-slavery 
and anti-slavery squatters, each trying to keep the other 



§§ »3 2 , *33- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



357 




out. The irregular fighting went on for three years, 
from 1855 to 1858 ; by that time, the northern settlers 
in Kansas were in such 
an overwhelming ma- 
jority that all hope of 
making a slave state 
of it was abandoned. 

The evil passions 
kindled by this strife 
were reflected in Con- 
gress. On May 19 and 
20, 1856, Charles Sum- 
ner, senator from Mas- 
sachusetts, made a 
powerful speech on 
Kansas affairs, which 
contained some per- 
sonal allusions to Sen- 
ator Butler, of South Carolina. Two days afterward, 
Butler's nephew, Preston Brooks, a representative from 
South Carolina, came up to Sumner while he was ab- 
sorbed in work at his desk in the Senate Chamber, 
and beat him on the head with a heavy cane until he 
had nearly killed him. For three years, while Sumner 
was under medical treatment, his chair in the Senate 
remained empty. A motion was made to expel Brooks 
from Congress for this atrocious and cowardly act, but 
it failed to secure the needful two-thirds vote. On July 
14 Brooks resigned his seat and went home to South 
Carolina, where, after three weeks of enthusiastic wel- 
come and congratulation, he was reelected to Congress 
with only six dissenting votes. 

133. The Know-Nothing Party. During the last 

1 From a photograph. 



CHARLES SUMNER.l 



358 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

four years, a new but short-lived party had sprung up. 
The immigration of foreigners, especially since the 
famine of 1846 in Ireland, had become so great as to 
alarm many people, and a secret society with lodges 
was formed for the purpose of opposing the easy natu- 
ralization of foreigners and their election to political 
offices. Its nominations, made in a secret convention, 
must be voted for by all members of the society under 
penalty of expulsion. Only the members of the higher 
degrees knew the secrets of the organization ; novices 
knew nothing about them. Hence it was called the 
Know-Nothing Society. It developed into, or formed 
the nucleus of, the American party, which was impor- 
tant enough, in 1855, to carry nine state elections. 
Next year, the American party nominated Millard 
Fillmore for the presidency, and rallied to itself 
tionof a small remnant of the Whigs. The Demo- 
crats nominated James Buchanan, of Pennsyl- 
vania, and declared in favor of squatter sovereignty. The 
Republicans stood upon the principle of the Wilmot 
Proviso, and declared that slavery must be prohibited in 
territories ; for their candidate, they took the young 
officer, Fremont, who had aided in conquering Califor- 
nia. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes, Fremont had 
114, Buchanan had 174, and was elected. 



Buctjanan's £tommtaatton. 

Democratic : 1857-1861. 

134. A Situation Full of Danger. The election of 
1856 showed that so long as the South was upheld by 
the Democrats at the North, this new Republican party 
would find it hard work to win. But the most notice- 



§'34- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



359 




able thing was the great strength shown by this party 
scarcely more than two years old. It alarmed the south- 
ern leaders. Many of 
them were already en- 
tertaining thoughts of 
secession in the event 
of the election of a Re- 
publican president. At 
the same time, their pol- 
icy became aggressive to 
the point of recklessness. 
In this they were encour- 
aged by the attitude of 
a large portion of the 
northern people, who, 
until civil war had actu- 
ally broken out, were ready to make extreme concessions 
in order to avoid it. The slaveholders did not 

. I he policy 

understand this attitude of mind. After it had of conces- 
once become clear, in 1861, that war could npt 
be avoided, these friends of concession for the most part 
became stanch defenders of the Union. 

During President Buchanan's administration the at- 
tacks of the abolitionists upon the institution of slavery 
grew fiercer day by day. The all-absorbing question 
was discussed not only in the newspapers and i ncreas i ng 
magazines, but by lecturers on the platform a s itatl0n - 
and preachers in the pulpit. There was a widespread 
feeling of uneasiness, though few people realized how 
speedily war was approaching, and it was generally be- 
lieved that in one way or another so great a calamity 
could be averted. 



JAMES BUCHANAN.* 



1 From Horton's Life of James Buchanan, 



360 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

By 1857 the progress of the Kansas experiment had 
begun to show that squatter sovereignty was not helping 
the slaveholders ; in peopling a new territory northern 
resources were too great for them. But the subservi- 
ency of President Pierce encouraged them to demand 
that the Federal government should actively protect 
slavery in all the territories. This was going a long 
way beyond squatter sovereignty. Under President 
Buchanan they kept on with this extreme policy until 
they alienated the great body of northern Democrats, 
and thus prepared the way for Republican victory. 

Dred Scott was the slave of an army surgeon whose 
home was in Missouri. In 1834, his master took him 
to the free state of Illinois, where he lived four years. 
The Dred Thence Dred accompanied the surgeon into 
Scott case. the Minnesota territory, where slavery was 
forbidden by the act of Congress called the Missouri 
Compromise. Thence, after a while, they returned to 
Missouri. Some time afterward, Dred was whipped 
and brought suit for damages in an action of assault 
and battery. He claimed to be a free negro ; he could 
not have remained a slave in Illinois and Minnesota, 
and had, therefore, come back to Missouri as a free 
negro. The case was carried before one court after 
another, and one judgment was in Dred's favor. At 
length, the case reached the Supreme Court of the 
United States, which gave its decision in 1857. The 
question before the Supreme Court was a question of 
jurisdiction. Had Dred Scott any right to bring suit 
in the lower courts ? Was he a citizen within the mean- 
ing of the Federal Constitution ? After deciding this 
question in the negative, the judges went on to give an 
opinion concerning all points connected with the case. 
A majority held that the Missouri Compromise was 



§ 134. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 36 1 

unconstitutional, and, therefore, null and void from the 
start ; that Dred Scott was not a citizen of Missouri, 
but a thing ; and that slaveowners could migrate from 
one part of the Union to another, and take their negroes 
with them, just as they could take their horses and dogs, 
or the gold watches and bank notes in their waistcoat 
pockets. 

The practical effect of the Dred Scott decision would 
have been in course of time to make the whole area of 
the United States a slave territory. The recklessness 
of the southern leaders, probably increased by this de- 
cision, was shown in two things : (1) In accord- m , 

. The slave 

ance with the express understanding at the trade re- 
time the Constitution was framed, Congress, in 
1808, prohibited the importation of slaves from Africa. 
The slave trade was seriously checked, but not com- 
pletely stopped, by this enactment ; it was continued 
for many years in an underhanded and unacknowledged 
fashion. By 1857 it was becoming apparent that the 
illegal traffic had been resumed on a considerable scale, 
and African slaves were brought into our southern ports 
with scarcely any attempt at concealment. The gov- 
ernment did little to hinder this slave trade, and it went 
on growing in dimensions until it was stopped by the 
Civil War. (2) A small party in Kansas, with the aid 
of the president and a party in Congress, tried to force 
a slave constitution, known as the " Lecompton 
Constitution," upon Kansas, in spite of the constitu- 
determined opposition of the great majority 
of the people of that territory. All these things were 
too much for the northern Democrats, and the Lecomp- 
ton business, in 1858, was the occasion of a break be- 
tween Buchanan and Douglas, which heralded a split in 
the Democratic party. 



3^2 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



135. The Debate between Lincoln and Douglas. 

In 185P, Senator Douglas was a candidate for reelec- 
tion to the Senate, and the Republicans of Illinois put 
forward Abraham Lincoln as rival candidate. Abra- 
ham Lincoln was then forty-nine years old. Descended 
from Virginian ancestors, he was born in Kentucky, 
February 12, 1809. His parents were so poor and 








w 



THE HOME OF LINCOLN AT THE AGE OF TWENTY-TWO. 1 

ignorant that they are often spoken of as belonging to 
the "mean white" class. Of schooling Lincoln had 
but little. He served as a flat-boat hand, as a clerk 
and storekeeper in a country village in Illinois, as a 
Abraham postmaster, and as a surveyor, and, at length, 
Lincoln. having taught himself law, he was admitted to 
the bar, and soon won distinction as a lawyer. He was 

1 Drawn from a photograph by permission of the Abraham Lincoln 
Log Cabin Association. This log cabin was situated on Goose-Nest 
Prairie, near Farmington, 111., and was built by Abraham Lincoln and his 
father, in 1831. 



§§ '35, '3 6 - SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 363 

several times elected to the Illinois Legislature, and 
served for a short time in Congress. Long before 1858, 
his local reputation was that of one of the ablest men 
in Illinois. He was extremely clear-headed and saga- 
cious, with wonderful insight into men's characters. As 
an orator, although his tall figure (six feet and four 
inches) was somewhat ungainly, he excelled in com- 
manding dignity and in persuasiveness ; and he was 
a "" summate master of pure English speech. As a 
tne ;r he could not be surpassed. He was very kind- 
°f t J :d, unfailing in tact, and abounding in droll humor; 
cisic 3 was a i SOj wnen occasion required, as masterful 
ance k as ever Jived. Unselfish, and always to be 
tim 'ided upon, he was everywhere known in homely 
pa.° r nce as "Honest Abe." For winning people's con- 
fid nee and keeping it, he was much like George Wash- 
in. ,ton. • 

In 1858, Lincoln and Douglas "took the stump to- 
other " in Illinois, and went about from town to town 
debating questions of national politics. The The t 
debate made Lincoln suddenly famous. It did debate - 
not prevent the reelection of Douglas to the Senate, but 
it forced him to such declarations of opinion on the 
Dred Scott case, and other matters, as to make it im- 
possible for the South to accept him as its next candi- 
date for the presidency. Thus, this discussion greatly 
helped to produce the split in the Democratic party, 
which proved fatal to its success in the next election. 

136. Differences Past Healing. The next year some- 
thing happened that so enraged people at the South as 
to make them more ready to secede from the Union if 
a Republican president should be elected. John Brown 
was a Connecticut man by birth, and a religious fanatic 
by nature, a curious compound of self-devotion and ruth- 



364 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

lessness. In 1855, he had moved from Ohio to Kansas, 
and in the bloody struggle there had done his full share 
of grim work. In the summer of 1859, he left Kansas 
John and settled in the neighborhood of Harper's 

Ha°rper's nd Ferry, in Virginia. One night in October, with 
Ferry. n ot more than twenty followers, he attacked 
the arsenal at that place, in the hope of getting weapons 
and setting up in the wild mountains about there an 
asylum where fugitive and rebellious slaves might con- 
gregate. He was captured of course and hanged. His 
attempt found but little sympathy or approval in the 
North, 1 where it was generally regarded as an insane 
piece of folly. But to the southern mind it brought up 
all the possible horrors of negro insurrection, and many 
persons may have feared that the election of a Repub- 
lican as president would countenance the repetition of 
such lawless and dangerous proceedings. 

Next year the Republicans nominated Abraham Lin- 
coln for president, and declared that the Federal gov- 
ernment must prohibit slavery in the territories. The 
southern and northern Democrats could not 

The elec- 
tion of agree with each other, and separated. The 

southern Democrats nominated John Breckin- 
ridge, of Kentucky, and declared that the Federal gov- 
ernment must protect slavery in the territories. The 

northern Democrats nominated Douglas, and 

The Demo- . . b 

cratic party were not yet inclined to give up squatter sov- 
ereignty. The meagre remnant of Whigs and 
Know-Nothings, now calling themselves the Constitu- 
tional Union party, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, 

1 After war had broken out, however, John Brown's memory became 
popular with the Union soldiers, and figured in the well-known war- 
song : — 

" John Brown's body lies mouldering in the grave ; 
His soul is marching on." 



§§ 136, 137- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



365 



and declared themselves in favor of " the Constitution, 
the Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

The division of the Democrats made a Republican vic- 
tory certain. Lincoln had 180 electoral votes, Breckin- 
ridge 72, Bell 39, and Douglas 1 2. The popular vote for 
Douglas was very large, but in nearly all the northern 
states it was merely a large minority, and, therefore, did 
not show in the electoral vote. 

137. The Secession of Several States. As soon as 





JEFFERSON DAVIS. 



ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. 



the result of the election was known, the senators and 
Federal office holders from South Carolina resigned 
their places. In December, a convention in South Caro- 
lina passed an Ordinance of Secession, dissolv- The Con- 
ing the bonds of union between that state and ^v^n- 
the others. Before the end of January, 1861, ment - 
Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and 
Texas had followed South Carolina's lead and withdrawn 
from the Union. In February, delegates from these 
seven seceding states met at Montgomerv, in Alabama, 



o£6 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

and organized a government called the " Confederate 
States of America." They adopted a constitution, 
mostly a copy of the Federal Constitution, and chose 
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, for president, and Alex- 
ander Hamilton Stephens, of Georgia, for vice-president. 
Many United States forts and arsenals were seized, but 
Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, and a few others 
held out. The South Carolinians prepared to capture 
Fort Sumter. 

Meanwhile Congress spent the winter in discussing 
schemes of compromise. The scheme which for a short 
time seemed most likely to succeed was one devised by 
John Jordan Crittenden, senator from Kentucky, and 
known as the Crittenden Compromise. It was proposed 
in the form of an amendment to the Constitution. The 
Missouri Compromise line was to be prolonged to the 
Pacific Ocean, and Congress was to be expressly pro- 
hibited from meddling with slavery south of that line ; 
the Federal government, moreover, was to pay for all 
fugitive slaves rescued from United States officers after 
arrest. This Crittenden Compromise seemed for a time 
very popular at the North, but it failed of adoption. 

In February, 1861, at the request of Virginia, a Peace 
Conference assembled at Washington. The chairman 
was John Tyler, formerly President of the United States, 
and delegates were present from Virginia, North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, and 
Delaware, as well as from fourteen free states. After 
much interesting discussion, this Conference recom- 
mended to Congress various concessions to the slave- 
holders. Congress rejected all these recommendations, 
and, instead of them, passed an amendment offered by 
Senator Douglas, guaranteeing that Congress should 
never interfere with slavery in the states. People's 



§§ 137, i3 8 - SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 367 

minds were soon so busy with the Civil War that this 
amendment was forgotten, and it was never adopted by 
the necessary number of states. 

About this time, for the sake of conciliation, several 
northern states either repealed or modified their " per- 
sonal liberty " laws. In general, the attitude of the 
North was such that the seceders cherished a strong 
hope of accomplishing their purpose without war. A 
great many people at the North seemed ready to sur- 
render almost anything to avoid bloodshed. All sorts 
of weak suggestions were made by men usually bold 
and firm, and there is no telling what might have hap- 
pened but for one man, the gentlest but most unflinch- 
ing of men, who was prudent enough to make the last 
stage of his journey to Washington in secret, because 
rumor had threatened him with assassination on the 
way. When Abraham Lincoln took his place in the 
White House, it soon appeared that the distressed ship 
of state had a firm hand at the helm. 

IUnroln'0 £ttmtmistratton. 

Republican : 1861-1865. 

138. A Survey of the Situation. The year of Lin- 
coln's election was only seventy years from 1790, the 
year in which our first census was taken. In that short 
time there had been great changes. In 1790, the popu- 
lation of Great Britain and Ireland was about 14,000,000, 
and that of the United States was scarcely 4,000,000. 
In i860, the population of Great Britain and 

Changes of 

Ireland was about 29,000,000, and that of the seventy 
United States was over 31,000,000. * So the 3ea 
beginning of the Civil War was the moment when the 
daughter country was seen to have grown to be a little 



368 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

"taller than its mother," and it was not strange if the 
mother country felt some jealousy. We had, moreover, 
come to be considered a great maritime power ; in mer- 
chant shipping we were ahead of all other countries on 
the globe except Great Britain. 

Another contrast is still more striking. In 1790, the 
North and South — that is, the group of free states and 
the group of slave states — were nearly equal in popula- 
tion. In 1 86 1, there were 9,000,000 in the seceding 
states against 22,000,000 in the loyal states ; and of that 
9,000,000, about 3,700,000 were slaves. When it came 
to wealth, the superiority of the North over the South 
was still greater than the superiority in numbers. 

On the other hand, the southerners had one great 
military advantage. It was not necessary for their armies 
to overrun the North. If they could defend their own 
frontier long enough to make the North tired of the 
war, that would be enough. Thus it became necessary 
for the North to conquer the South, destroy its armies, 
and occupy its territory, and that was an immense piece 
of work. 

In planning secession, the southern leaders generally 
believed that the North would not fight. They thus 
hoped to attain their ends without a war, but in case 
war should come after all, they reckoned more- or less 
confidently upon three things, in all of which they were 
disappointed : — 

Three dis- I. They hoped that all the slave states would 
mentsof unite with them, but this, as we shall presently 
the South. see ^ was no t the case. 

2. They hoped for some valuable assistance from 
northern Democrats, but got none worth mentioning. 
From the first outbreak of hostilities, the great body of 
northern Democrats loyally supported President Lin- 




+S/^usk<c4r&/* 



From an original, unretouched negative, made in 1864, at the time the 
President commissioned Ulysses Grant Lieutenant-General and Com- 
mander of all the armies of the Republic. It is said that this negative, 
with one of General Grant, was made in commemoration of that event. 



370 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

coin's government. Some of them voted regularly with 
the Republicans ; others, who did not do so, were known 
as "War Democrats." A few, who opposed and some- 
times sought to embarrass the government, were called 
"Peace Democrats" and reviled as "Copperheads;" 
but there were not enough of them to do much damage. 
3. They hoped for substantial aid from France and 
England, especially the latter. The great English man- 
ufactories depended upon the supply of cotton from the 
South. If war should come, the Federal navy would try 
to blockade the southern coasts ; if it should succeed, it 
would create a dearth of cotton in England ; so it was 
supposed that England would interfere and break the 
blockade in order to get cotton. In this hope the south- 
erners were disappointed. After the war began, our navy 
did blockade the southern coast from Chesapeake Bay to 
The the Rio Grande. Very few ships could get in 

blockade. or ou t p as t that great naval wall, and the export 
of cotton was soon stopped. In i860, the amount of 
cotton sent out was valued at $202,741,351 ; in 1861, 
only about $42,000,000 worth was exported ; in 1862, 
only about $4,000,000. This stoppage produced a cot- 
ton famine in England ; the cotton machinery stopped, 
and thousands of men were thrown out of work. Yet in 
spite of all the suffering thus caused, the British govern- 
ment would not interfere to help the South. Napoleon 
III., who then ruled France, would have been glad to 
recognize the independence of the South, but he did not 
like to do it unless England would do so too, and she 
would not. This was not because the British govern- 
ment was friendly to the Union, for it was not. Among 
the people of Great Britain much sympathy was ex- 
pressed for the North and for the Union, but in gen- 
eral the upper classes of society and the Tory party were 



§§'38,139- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 37 1 

pleased at the prospect of a disruption of the United 
States. Such persons applauded the seceders and pro- 
fessed to believe that slavery was not the real cause of 
the war. The attitude of the government, 1 without be- 
ing positively hostile, was unsympathetic. Nevertheless 
England had for many years been zealously engaged in 
suppressing the African slave-trade wherever her fleet 
could reach it ; and she could not be persuaded to go to 
war in support of a government whose own vice-presi- 
dent, Alexander Stephens, had publicly declared it to be 
founded upon slavery as its corner-stone. That would 
have been too absurd. So the South had to fight through 
the great war alone. 

139. Beginning of the War. All through the win- 
ter the South Carolinians had defied President Buchanan, 
who did not seem to know what to do about Fort Sum- 
ter. Since the people of South Carolina, and of the 
Confederacy in general, held that their connection with 
the Union was dissolved, they regarded the United 
States as a foreign power which had no right to keep 
possession of Fort Sumter, or any other such place 
within the limits of the Confederacy. On the other 
hand, unless the United States government Theques- 
was prepared to admit the right of secession, Fo" t a Jum_ 
it was bound to insist upon keeping possession ter - 
of Fort Sumter and all other such posts. If the Union 
was at an end, Fort Sumter belonged to the state of 
South Carolina, and it was President Buchanan's duty 
to surrender it without unnecessary delay. Unless the 
Union was at an end, Fort Sumter belonged to the 
United States, and it was President Buchanan's duty to 

1 Throughout the Civil War, Lord Palmerston was Prime Minister ; 
and Earl Russell, as Foreign Secretary, came most directly into contact 
with American affairs. 



,n 2 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

defend it to the uttermost. The president did not admit 
the right of secession, but he was unwilling to do any- 
thing toward bringing on an armed conflict. The opin- 
ion was often expressed at that time that while the Con- 
stitution did not authorize any state to secede from the 
Union, neither did it authorize the Federal government 
to employ force in preventing a state from seceding. 
Considerations of this sort hindered Buchanan from mak- 
ing up his mind how to deal with the Fort Sumter ques- 
tion, until presently the 4th of March arrived, and with 
it the inauguration of Abraham Lincoln as president. 

Another month elapsed while the new president, beset 
with crowds of applicants for office, was studying the 
details of the situation. On April 8, the governor of 
South Carolina was notified that reinforcements and 
provisions would at once be sent to the Federal garrison 
in Fort Sumter. This information was at once tele- 
graphed to Jefferson Davis, at Montgomery, and he held 
a cabinet meeting to consider it. His secretary of 
state, Robert Toombs, of Georgia, thought it unwise to 
attack Fort Sumter. " The firing upon that fort," said 
Toombs, " will inaugurate a civil war greater than any 
the world has yet seen. . . . You will wantonly strike 
a hornet's nest which extends from mountains to ocean, 
and legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to 
death. It is unnecessary; it puts us in the 
S a Fo U rt wrong ; it is fatal." 1 In spite of this warning, 
Sumter. Davig gent orders t0 General Beauregard, com- 
manding at Charleston, to demand the evacuation of 
Fort Sumter, and in case of refusal, "to reduce it." 
As the Federal officer in command, Major Robert An- 
derson, refused to surrender, a bombardment was begun 
on the morning of Friday, April 12, and continued until 

1 Stovall's Life of Toombs, p. 226. 



§ 139- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



373 



the following Sunday afternoon, when the little garrison 
surrendered and were allowed to march out with flying 
colors. Not a man was killed on either side. The next 
day President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling for 
75,000 troops to put down the rebellion. On Wednesday 
the 17th, Jefferson Davis replied with a proclamation 
which authorized the fitting out of privateers to attack 
the merchant shipping of the United States. On Friday 
the 19th, President Lincoln rejoined by proclaiming a 




FORT SUMTER. 



blockade of the whole southern coast from South Caro- 
lina to Texas inclusive, and declaring that Confederate 
privateers would be treated as pirates. Thus on both 
sides was war most emphatically declared. The first 
actual bloodshed occurred on that same 19th of April, 
which by a curious coincidence was the anniversary of 
the bloodshed that ushered in the War for Independ- 
ence. On that day a regiment from Massachusetts, on 



374 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

its way to Washington, was fired on by a mob as it was 
passing through Baltimore, and several men were killed. 
140. The Limits of the Rebellion Defined. The 
effect of the capture of Fort Sumter was like that of 
touching a lighted match to a powder magazine. There 
_,. AT „ was a sudden and tremendous outburst of pa- 

The North " 

accepts triotic feeling in all the northern states. There 

the issue. 

was no further talk of compromise. In the en- 
deavor to avoid war, the North felt that it had gone as 
far as reason or conscience would allow ; and now the 
promptness and vigor with which it accepted the issue 
of war were remarkable. Within a few weeks more than 
300,000 troops had been put at President Lincoln's dis- 
posal. Men of all parties came to his support, foremost 
among them the Democratic leader, Senator Douglas, who 
declared that if sword and bayonet were to be allowed 
to contest the results of the ballot-box, then " the history 
of the United States is already written in the history of 
Mexico." 1 Douglas died in June, 1861, and his last 
words were a prayer for the preservation of the Union. 

North of the Ohio River and of Mason and Dixon's 
line, this practical unanimity of feeling prevailed. In 
the border states there was no such unanimity. In Ar- 
kansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia, the 

popular feeling had been opposed to secession, 
the border but the doctrine prevailed that the Federal 

government had no right to employ military 
force against a seceding state. When compelled to 
choose between fighting against the South or against 
the North, those four states chose the latter alternative ; 
their governors refused to obey President Lincoln's call 
for troops, and presently the states seceded from the 

1 Since Mexico won its independence from Spain, in 1821, its condition 
had been one of chronic anarchy. 



§ i 4 o. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 375 

Union and joined the Confederacy. There were many 
Unionists, however, in North Carolina and Arkansas 
(as also, indeed, in the mountainous regions of northern 
Alabama and Georgia). The people of the eastern parts 
of Tennessee, in spite of the action of their state gov- 
ernment, remained steadfastly loyal to the Union. In 
the western part of Virginia a solid block of West Vil ._ 
forty counties broke away and formed a new s ini:u 
state, which was afterward admitted into the Union as 
West Virginia. By this separation Virginia was de- 
prived of nearly two fifths of her territory and more than 
one fourth of her population, and her rank among all the 
United States was reduced from fifth to ninth. 

Even as thus curtailed, Virginia was first in popula- 
tion among the eleven seceding states, and she added to 
the Confederacy a military strength more than propor- 
tionate to her numbers. In May, 1861, the Confeder- 
acy moved its government from Montgomery in Alabama 
to Richmond in Virginia, and made that city its capital. 
The possession of the Shenandoah Valley by Importance 
the Confederacy made it easy, until toward the of Virginia. 
end of the war, to threaten the city of Washington with 
sudden capture ; and this circumstance seriously ham- 
pered the operations of the Federal armies. The rivers 
between Washington and Richmond constituted a series 
of strong natural defences against an army proceeding 
southward. The three ablest Confederate generals — 
Lee, Johnston, and Jackson — were Virginians, and but 
for the secession of their state, their swords would prob- 
ably have been drawn in defence of the Union. Thus 
in many ways the secession of Virginia was a serious 
blow to President Lincoln's government. 

If Missouri had seceded, she would have added to the 
Confederacy a population somewhat larger than Vir- 



376 



THE FEDERAL UNION 



Ch. XV. 




m 



FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR. 



ginia carried over to it. 
Her military position, too, 
on the flank of Kentucky 
and Tennessee, was ex- 
tremely important. With 
Missouri securely held by 
a Confederate force, it 
would have been very diffi- 
cult for Federal armies to 
penetrate into the Confed- 
eracy by way of the Ten- 
nessee and Cumberland 
rivers. The majority of 
the people of Missouri 
were decidedly opposed to secession, but the government 
was strongly secessionist and might have succeeded in 
its project for committing the state to the cause 
of the South, had it not been for the prompt 
and resolute action of Francis Preston Blair, a lawyer of 
St. Louis, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commandant 

of the United States arse- 
nal in that city. In May 
and June, 1861, these two 
men overturned the state 
government and set up a 
loyal one in its place. In 
August, Lyon, having be- 
come brigadier-general in 
command of a small army, 
was defeated and killed at 
Wilson's Creek, but, in 
spite of this, the Confed- 
erates grew weaker, until 
they quite lost their hold 



Missouri. 




NATHANIEL LYON. 



§ i 4 o. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 377 

upon the state. Owing to the position of Missouri in 
the field of war, the work of Lyon and Blair was equiva- 
lent to a tremendous initial victory for the North. 

Of the other two border states, Maryland remained 
firmly in the Union. In Kentucky there was at first 
some talk of preserving "neutrality" between 
North and South, which was of course impos- 
sible. Here, as elsewhere along the border, public sen- 
timent was so much divided that members of the same 
family espoused opposite sides. One of the sons of the 
venerable author of the Crittenden Compromise became 
a major-general in the Union army, while another son 
attained the same rank in the army of the Confederacy. 
President Lincoln, a native of Kentucky, knew well how 
to feel the popular pulse in that state. Among other 
things, he understood the importance of letting the 
Confederacy commit the first act of aggression upon its 
soil. This was done the first week in September, 1861, 
when a Confederate force of 1 5,000 men, under General 
Polk, 1 established itself at Columbus, and prepared to 
seize the important position of Paducah, where the Ten- 
nessee River empties into the Ohio. At the same time 
another Confederate force, under General Zollicoffer, 
invaded the southeastern corner of Kentucky by Cum- 
berland Gap. At the news of these acts of invasion the 
Kentucky Legislature, by a heavy majority, voted that 
the stars and stripes should be displayed over the capitol 
at Frankfort. 

There was then a small Union force at Cairo, com- 

1 Leonidas Polk was related to James Knox Polk, eleventh President 
of the United States. Their grandfathers were brothers. Leonidas Polk 
was a graduate of the West Point Military Academy. He afterwards be- 
came an Episcopal clergyman, and at the beginning of the Civil War was 
Bishop of Louisiana. He then accepted a commission as major-general 
in the Confederate army. 



378 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



manded by Ulysses Simpson Grant. This officer was a 
graduate of the West Point Academy, and had served in 
the Mexican War. In 1854, he had left the army and 
engaged in business. He was living in Illinois when the 
Civil War broke out, and entered the service in June 
as a colonel of the Illinois militia. At the beginning of 




THE SITUATION IN MISSOURI AND KENTUCKY, 1861-62. 

September he was commanding the district of south- 
eastern Missouri, with headquarters at Cairo, when 
Polk occupied Columbus. Three days afterward Grant 
entered Kentucky and seized Paducah. This was equiv- 
alent to a Union victory, giving the Union army a hold 
upon the mouths of the two great rivers, the Tennessee 
and the Cumberland, which were like two highways into 
the heart of the Confederacy. Five days later the Ken- 
tucky Legislature, by a three fourths vote, instructed the 
governor to demand the removal of Polk and his Con- 
federate troops from the state. It was then moved that 
the withdrawal of Grant and his Union troops should 



§§ 140, i4i. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 379 

also be demanded, and this motion was defeated by 
a two thirds vote. Thus did Kentucky array herself 
decisively on the side of the Union. 

141. First Heavy Fighting. People wanted to 
have the war ended within three months, and were 
impatient for a great battle. On July 16, a force of 
about 35,000 men, commanded by General McDow- 
ell, began moving from Washington toward Rich- 
mond. At Bull Run, with about 23,000 Confederates, 
was General Beauregard, who had been McDowell's 
classmate at West Point. At Winchester, in the Shen- 
andoah valley, was a Confederate force of „,, B 

J The first 

15,000, under Joseph Eggleston Johnston, con- battle of 
fronted by a similar Union force under Rob- 
ert Patterson, a veteran of the war of 181 2. McDow- 
ell's intention was to attack and overwhelm Beauregard, 
and he relied upon Patterson's ability to detain John- 
ston at Winchester. But Johnston eluded Patterson, 
left Winchester on the 18th, and reaching Bull Run on 
the 20th with one brigade, took command of the whole 
army there. By the morning of the 21st, when the 
battle began, the arrivals from Winchester had swelled 
the Confederate army to about 30,000. On both sides 
the fighting was well sustained considering the raw- 
ness of the troops. 1 By the middle of the afternoon, 
McDowell seemed on the point of victory, when a fresh 
force from Winchester under Kirby Smith arrived on 
the scene and turned the scale. The Union army was 

1 General McDowell once told me that on the march to Bull Run it 
was impossible to keep those raw recruits from scattering to pick black- 
berries. General Sherman told me that just before the start for Bull 
Run, a newly enlisted captain insisted upon going home to New York for 
a few days " on business," and would have gone in utter defiance of dis- 
cipline if Sherman, who was then a colonel, had not sternly threatened to 



38o 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




driven from the field, but the victors were in no con- 
dition to follow up their advantage. About 5,000 men 
were killed or wounded. This battle began to teach 
people at the North that they must not expect to make 
a speedy conquest of the South. At the same time 

it strengthened the deter- 
mination of the northern 
people and incited them 
to greater exertions ; 
while the South, in rejoic- 
ing over the victory, did 
not duly heed the proverb 
that "one swallow does 
not make a summer." 
Very little else was done 
at the East during the 
rest of the year 1861, ex- 
cept that the Confederate 
troops who had invaded 
West Virginia were driven out by McClellan and Rose- 
crans. In the autumn General McClellan succeeded 
the venerable General Scott as general-in-chief of the 
United States army, and for some time he devoted him- 
self to the task of organizing and drilling the splendid 
force in front of Washington, which came to be known 
as the Army of the Potomac. 

About the end of the year, an affair occurred which 

have him shot as a deserter. Soon afterward President Lincoln came to 
visit the camp, and this indignant captain walked up to his carriage and 
told him his tale of " tyranny." As he was finishing it, Sherman hap- 
pened to step within hearing, and Lincoln glanced at him with a droll 
twinkle of the eye. " Well," said Lincoln to the captain, " if Colonel 
Sherman threatened to shoot you, I would advise you not to trust him, 
for I really believe he would do it ! " 



JOSEPH E. JOHNSTON. 



§ i 4 i. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 38 I 

might have dragged us into war with Great Britain. 
Two southern gentlemen, Slidell and Mason, The Trent 
were sent out by the Confederacy as commis- affair - 
sioners respectively to France and to England, to seek 
aid from those powers. They ran the blockade, and at 
Havana took passage for England in a British steamer 
named the Trent. Some way out at sea, an American 
warship under Captain Wilkes overhauled the Trent, 
took out Mason and Slidell, and carried them as pris- 
oners to Fort Warren, in Boston harbor. This act of 
Captain Wilkes was at first applauded, and the House 
of Representatives passed a resolution of thanks, but the 
British government demanded that Slidell and Mason 
should be given up. On sober second thought it was 
clear that the seizure of those gentlemen was unjustifi- 
able. It was the sort of thing that Great Britain had 
formerly done, and against which the United States had 
always protested. In 1856, Great Britain had consented 
to regard such kind of search and capture from neutral 
ships as illegal. President Lincoln, therefore, at once 
disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes and gave up the 
prisoners. This was in the highest degree creditable 
to President Lincoln and to the people of the United 
States, who heartily approved his conduct. 

The affair created much bitter feeling in England 
and America, and the feeling afterward grew more bit- 
ter when fast Confederate cruisers were allowed to slip 
out of British ports to prey upon American commerce. 
The most famous of these privateers was the „ , , 

• Confeder- 

Alabama, which did great damage to our com- ate cruis- 
merce. After a while, the British government 
was warned by our minister that this sort of thing 
would not be endured by the United States, and there- 



3 82 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



after means were found of preventing such cruisers from 
going out. 

142. A Revolution in Naval Warfare. Events hap- 
pened on the water in March, 1862, which were calcu- 
lated to make foreign powers think twice before ven- 
turing into a quarrel with the United States. The 
Confederates had seized the navy yard at Norfolk, in 




THE FIGHT BETWEEN THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC. 1 

Virginia, and having found there the United States 
The frigate Merrimac, had transformed her into an 

Memmac. i rcm clad ram with sloping sides and iron beak. 
In Hampton Roads, the United States had a fleet of 
five wooden warships, probably equal in strength to any 
five ships in the world. On the 8th of March, the Mer- 
rimac attacked this fleet. Their shot bounded harm- 
lessly from the Merrimac's sloping iron sides, while 
with her terrible beak she rammed one of them, the 
Cumberland, and broke a great hole in her. The un- 
fortunate Cumberland sank, and but few of her men 
were saved. Then the Merrimac attacked the Congress, 

1 After Halsall's painting, now in the Capitol at Washington. 



s 142. 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



J°0 



drove her aground, and forced her to surrender. Night 
came on, and before destroying the other three ships, 
the black monster waited for the morrow. The tele- 
graph carried the news all over the North, and with it 
consternation. What could protect us against this fear- 
ful Merrimac ? She might break up the blockade ; she 
might destroy all the shipping in New York harbor and 
bombard the city ; there was no telling what she might 
do. It was a sickening moment. 

But the very next day had a still greater surprise in 
store. Captain John Ericsson, the inventor The 
of the screw propeller, had lately invented the Monitor. 
turret ship ; and the first vessel of this class, the Moni- 
tor, had just been finished. She was a small flat 
craft, presenting very little surface for an adversary's 
balls to strike. Amidships there was an iron cylinder 
made to revolve by machinery, and this revolving cylin- 
der, or turret, carried two 
enormous guns which 
could throw such heavy 
balls as had never before 
been seen in war. She was 
said to look like "a cheese- 
box on a raft." It so hap- 
pened that this little Moni- 
tor arrived in Hampton 
Roads on the night of 
March 8. Next morning, 
as the Merrimac was steam- 
ing toward her next in- 
tended victim, the frigate 
Minnesota, this queer little john ericsson.i 

1 From the unique marble bust modelled from life by Kneeland, and 
now in my possession, in my house at Cambridge. 




384 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

craft came up and sent a stupendous ball thundering 
against the monster's iron side ; and then, as the turret 
swung around, another, and another, such a battering 
„„ , , as never ship's side had felt before that day. 

Ihe battle x J 

of the iron- The Mernmac stood it well, but her attempts 
to catch the Monitor with her beak were futile, 
and at length she gave up the fight and withdrew from 
the scene, completely baffled though not disabled. 

In one respect, this was the most wonderful battle 
that ever was fought on the water. All the newest 
ships in all the navies in the world instantly became 
old-fashioned and discredited, and all great nations had 
to begin afresh and build new navies. As for the naval 
superiority of the North over the South, it was no more 
interrupted. Among the great men who saved the 
Union and freed the slaves, one of the most important 
was the man of science, John Ericsson. 

143. Confederate Lines of Defence in the South- 
west. The defensive line of the Confederates ex- 
tended through Kentucky, from the Mississippi River 
to Cumberland Gap, in the Alleghanies. Its centre 
was at Forts Henry, on the Tennessee River, and 
Donelson, on the Cumberland ; where it was opposed 
by General Grant with forces which presently 
Henry and formed the westernmost of the three great 
Federal armies, and came to be known as 
the Army of the Tennessee. The Confederate right 
wing extended eastward from Bowling Green, and was 
opposed by General Buell, with the middle great Fed- 
eral army, afterward known as the Army of the Cum- 
berland. Buell's left wing was commanded by General 
Thomas, who, in January, 1862, won an important 
victory at Mill Spring, and drove back the Confederate 
right. The next month, General Grant, aided by Com- 



§ '43- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



385 



modore Foote and his gunboats, captured Fort Henry 
and Fort Donelson, taking 15,000 prisoners. The vic- 
tory at Fort Donelson was a very brilliant and pictur- 
esque affair. After one of the Confederate lines had 
been carried by storm, and after the only avenue of re- 
treat had been cut off, the commander asked what terms 




THE FIELD OF WAR 



could be made. Grant's reply was, " No terms except 
an unconditional and immediate surrender can be ac- 
cepted. I propose to move immediately upon your 
works." This reply pleased people greatly, and U. S. 
Grant's initials were said to stand for " Unconditional 
Surrender." From that time he was one of the most 
conspicuous figures in the field. The capture of Fort 
Donelson was the first really great victory gained by 



386 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

either side, and it was indeed a severe blow to the Con- 
federates ; it forced them to give up nearly the whole of 
Tennessee. 

They made their next stand along the line from Mem- 
phis to Chattanooga, and began massing their forces at 
Corinth. Their leader, Albert Sidney Johnston, was 
regarded as one of the ablest officers in the southern 
army, and the second in command was Beauregard, who 
had been sent westward from Virginia. Grant advanced 
toward them as far as Pittsburg Landing, on the west 
bank of the Tennessee River, and Buell was on the way 
The battle to J om ^ m there. Johnston then moved up 
of Shiioh. suddenly from Corinth in order to attack and 
crush Grant before Buell could join him. Thus occurred 
the great battle of Shiioh, April 6 and 7, in which nearly 
100,000 men were engaged, and more than 20,000 were 
killed or wounded. General Johnston was killed on the 
first day, and General Beauregard succeeded him in 
command. For a time it seemed as if the Confederates 
were winning, but Grant kept the field till nightfall, 
when Buell's troops began to arrive. On the next day 
after six hours of desperate fighting the Confederates 
were obliged to retreat. Some weeks afterward they 
lost Corinth, and thus the centre of their second line of 
defence was broken. 

The navy of the United States played a great part 
in putting down the rebellion. Many persons had be- 
lieved it would be impossible to make an effective block- 
ade of the entire coast, from Chesapeake Bay to the 
Rio Grande. Yet this was done. Of regular warships 
there were not nearly enough, but the government made 
The all sorts of craft useful, — merchant ships, 

blockade, steam-boats, even Brooklyn ferry-boats, some- 
times partially armored. Almost anything that could 



§ 143- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



387 



float and carry guns was found serviceable, at least tem- 
porarily. During 1861 the forts at Hatteras Inlet were 
captured, and also Port Royal, in South Carolina, and 
sundry small islands along the coast. Such places 
served as points of supply for Union fleets, and also as 





ADMIRAL FARRAGUT. 



lairs from which to pounce upon blockade-runners, or to 
assail places on the coast. 

In April, 1862, soon after the battle of Shiloh, the 
Federal fleet, under Farragut and Porter, performed one 
of the most memorable exploits in naval history, when it 
ran past the forts at the mouth of the Mississippi, de- 
feated the Confederate fleet, captured the city of New 
Orleans, and got control of the river nearly The cap- 
up to Vicksburg. At the same time, the river New° f 
fleet, aided by a small land force under General Orleans. 



388 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 




f'-\if- 



ADMIRAL PORTER. 



Pope, captured Island Number Ten, 1 thus opening the 

river as far down as Mem- 
phis. Then the river fleet 
went down and completely 
destroyed the Confederate 
river fleet at Memphis. 

This series of magnificent 
Federal victories reduced 
the Confederates in the 
West to the two important 
positions of Vicksburg, on 
the Mississippi River, and 
Chattanooga, in the south- 
eastern part of Tennessee. 
These two places were of 
immense importance, as we shall see. They were de- 
fended with heroism and skill, and it was long before 
they yielded to the Federal armies. 

144. McClellan in Virginia. Compared with the 
rapid progress of the Union armies in the West, things 
at the East seemed to 
stand almost still. Rich- 
mond, the Confederate cap- 
ital, was the objective point 
to be reached by the 
Army of the Potomac. 
General McClellan wished 
to advance against Rich- . 
mond from the mouth of I 
James River ; but the gov- 
ernment wished him to 
march across Virginia in 
such a way as always to 




GEORGE B. MC CLELLAN. 

1 This name indicates the tenth island below the mouth of the Ohio 
River. 



§ 144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



389 



keep his army interposed between the Confederate army 
and the city of Washington. The route which McClel- 
lan took was a kind of compromise between these two 
methods. He advanced up the York River with his 




JMfefc- 




ROBERT EDWARD LEE. 



base on the York River instead of the James, while 
part of his army, under McDowell, was started The ad- 
on the direct road from Washington toward Against 
Richmond by way of Fredericksburg. There Richmond, 
was always a chance that some Confederate force might 
dart upon Washington through the Shenandoah valley ; 
and so that region was watched by small Union forces 
under Banks and Fremont. 



39° 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



The skilful Confederate generals, against whom Mc- 
Clellan was pitted, soon made havoc of these arrange- 
ments. Joseph Johnston at first directed the Con- 
federate operations. After detaining McClellan for a 
month in besieging Yorktown, Johnston abandoned that 
place and withdrew toward Richmond. In fol- 

The battle 

of Fair lowing him, McClellan's army was brought into 
a dangerous position ; part of it was on the 

south side of the Chickahominy River, part was on the 

north side, when a sudden 
rise of the river nearly cut 
the army in two. John- 
ston seized the opportunity 
to strike the southern half, 
and, in the bloody battle 
of Fair Oaks, May 31, it 
barely escaped destruction. 
In this battle Johnston was 
wounded, and the chief 
command was taken by 
Robert Edward Lee. 
- Meanwhile, the famous 
Thomas Jonathan Jackson 

— already better known as "Stonewall" Jackson 1 — 

. , suddenly swooped into the Shenandoah val- 

Jackson in J '- 

the shen- ley, and put to flight the Federals there, ex- 
citing such a panic in Washington that Mc- 
Dowell's force was withdrawn to defend the capital. 
This was just what Jackson wanted, and, having brought 




"STONEWALL" JACKSON. 



1 At one time during the first battle of Bull Run, the Confederates 
seemed to be defeated, and some were retreating in disorder when they 
passed Jackson and his men still bravely holding their ground. " Look ! " 
shouted General Bernard Bee, as he was rallying his men, " Look ! there 
is Jackson standing like a stone wall ! " 



§ J44- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 39I 

it about, he lost no time in joining Lee before Rich- 
mond. 

McDowell's withdrawal was a sore disappointment to 
McClellan, but it left him free to revert to his original 
plan, and he began changing his base to the James 
River. Lee now attacked him while making the change, 
and a week of severe fighting ensued, June 26 The seven 
to July I. McClellan reached the James River, da >'s' 

J J J ' battles. 

after losing more than 1 5,000 men, and in the 

last of the week's fights, at Malvern Hill, Lee met with 

a bloody repulse. 

Shortly before this, the chief command of the Union 
armies had been given to General Halleck, an officer 
who had held command over all the West, and had thus 
caught some reflected glory from the achievements of 
Grant and Pope. For some time McClellan had com- 
manded only the Army of the Potomac. Now the scat- 
tered forces in northern Virginia were gathered under 
command of General Pope. Stonewall Jackson marched 
against Pope, and once more the Federals did just what 
their enemies wanted. Halleck ordered McClellan to 
abandon his operations against Richmond, and „„ 

10 1 he second 

move his army around by sea to Aquia Creek, battle of 
there to unite it with Pope's. This movement 
left Lee's hands entirely free, so that he joined Jack- 
son, and with his full force struck Pope at Bull Run, 
August 28-30, and totally defeated him. In those three 
bloody days the Union army lost more than 14,000 men, 
and the Confederates lost not less than 10,000. 

After this victory, Lee pushed on into Maryland, 
threatening Baltimore and Washington, while wild ex- 
citement prevailed throughout the northern states. All 
the available forces near at hand, amounting to about 
85,000, were given to McClellan, who advanced north- 



392 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



westward through Maryland to find the enemy. Lee 
invasion of was disappointed at the coldness with which 
Maryland, kis troops were received in that state. The 



PENjSI SYLVAN l\A 

o GETTYSBURG 




THE WAR IN VIRGINIA, 1861-65. 



song, " Maryland, my Maryland ! " was for the moment 
popular at the South, but the Marylanders showed no 
desire to join the Confederacy. The most that Lee 
could hope to accomplish north of the Potomac was to 



§ 144- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



393 



defeat the Federal army and then threaten or capture 
the city of Washington. That would have been no 
small blow to the Union cause, though not necessarily 
fatal. Lee's course was bold. There was a Union force 
of 11,000 men at Harper's Ferry, which Halleck had 
thought best not to withdraw from that point. The 




BRIDGE OVER THE ANTIETAM.l 



chance was too tempting to be lost, and Lee sent Stone- 
wall Jackson to capture this Union force. It was tak- 
ing a serious risk, for McClellan might arrive and attack 
him before Jackson's return. But Jackson captured 
Harper's Ferry with its garrison, and was back again 
in time for the encounter with McClellan. With his 

1 From Battles a>i<l Leaders of the Civil War. 



394 



THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 



whole force thus united, Lee had scarcely more than 
50,000 men. The great struggle came on the 
ofAntie- 17th of September, at Antietam, where the 
killed and wounded were more than 25,000. 
Lee, who was slightly worsted, retired very leisurely into 
Virginia. Many people felt that McClellan had proved 
himself incompetent for the position which he held. 
Early in November the president removed him from 
command and appointed General Burnside in his place. 
145. The Emancipation of the Slaves. The battle 
of Antietam marked an era in the progress of the war, 
for it gave to President Lincoln the occasion for taking 
a decisive step which he had for some time been medi- 
tating. When after the fall of Fort Sumter he called 
for 75,000 troops to put down the rebellion, he had no 
intention of interfering with slavery in the states where 
it already existed. That would have been contrary to 
the original policy of the Republican party, which aimed 
only at the prohibition of slavery in all the terri- 
siaves pro- tories. But that policy was intended for times 
contra- of peace, and the war time, with its new re- 
band ' quirements, soon altered it. When armies 

were once in the field, what was to be done with run- 
away slaves who sought refuge in our camps ? Federal 
commanders could hardly be expected to return them 
to their masters. If the North had tried to acquiesce in 
the Fugitive Slave Law in order to prevent a civil war, 
it could not be expected tamely to endure it now that 
war had begun. But on what legal ground could a Union 
commander refuse to surrender fugitives ? At first, while 
people were still thinking in the old ways, there was a 
moment of puzzling over this question. But the dim* 
culty was ingeniously met by General Butler, a Massa- 
chusetts lawyer and major-general of volunteers, who 



§ 145- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 395 

in May, 1861, was commanding at Fortress Monroe. 
Among the rules of modern warfare, designed to miti- 
gate its severity, one is that private property must, as 
far as possible, be respected. Soldiers are not allowed 
to burn and plunder people's houses, and even when it 
is necessary to take articles of food, it is customary to 
pay for them. But such things as powder and ball, 
swords and cannon, things directly used in war, are not 
entitled to the respect thus paid to private property. 
They may be destroyed or confiscated ; in legal phrase, 
they are "contraband of war." General Butler was 
something of a humorist. When some slaves who had 
taken refuge in his camp were demanded by their own- 
ers, he refused to surrender them ; since they could be 
used in war, in building fortifications and in other ways, 
he said they were " contraband " and he should there- 
fore keep them. This answer hit the popular fancy, 
comic papers had pictures of negroes singing, "Bress 
de Lor', we am contraban'," and thus the Fugitive Slave 
Law practically received its death-blow. For some years 
in ordinary talk, "a contraband" meant a negro. 

To refuse to surrender runaways was one thing ; to 
set slaves free was quite another. As the war went on, 
the anti-slavery feeling rapidly increased at the North. 
Some commanders undertook to set slaves free by pro- 
clamation. Fremont tried this in Missouri, in the sum- 
mer of 1 861, and Hunter tried it in South Carolina, in 
the spring of 1862. But President Lincoln overruled 
these proclamations, as going far beyond the authority 
permissible to generals in the field. For this he was 
blamed by some impatient people, who charged him 
with being lukewarm in his hatred of slavery. But 
Lincoln was one of the most clear-sighted of men. He 
knew that a premature agitation of such questions in 



396 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

the border states would not help the anti-slavery cause, 
and he knew that no great measure of reform is secure 
until it is demanded by public opinion. By the summer 
of 1862 people were ready to appreciate the argument 
that if confiscating slave property could weaken the 
enemy, it was a sound military measure ; and besides 
this, it would make it more than ever impossible for 
England or France to give open aid to the South. It 
was also the clear dictate of common sense, that in 
waging such a terrible and costly war, the earliest op- 
Thepro- portunity should be taken of striking at the 
of a emanci- cause °f the trouble ; otherwise victory, even 
pation. when won, could not be final, but the seeds of 
future disease would be left in the body politic. Presi- 
dent Lincoln knew that the Constitution gave him no 
authority to abolish slavery, but there was a sound prin- 
ciple of military law that did. In 1836 John Quincy 
Adams had declared in Congress that, if ever the slave 
states should become the theatre of war, the govern- 
ment might interfere with slavery in any way that mili- 
tary policy might suggest. Again, in his speech of 
April 14, 1842, he said in words of prophetic force, 
" Whether the war be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this 
down as the law of nations : I say that the military 
authority takes for the time the place of all municipal 
institutions. Under that state of things, so far from its 
being true that the states where slavery exists have the 
exclusive management of the subject, the President of 
the United States, as commander of the army, has power 
to order the universal emancipation of slaves." It was 
upon this military theory that Lincoln acted. In an- 
nouncing it he seized the favorable moment when the 
tide of invasion had begun to roll back from Maryland. 
On the 22d of September, 1862, a few days after the 



§ '45- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



397 



^5> 



battle of Antie- 
tam, he issued his 
immortal procla- 
mation, announc- 
ing that on the 
following New 
Year's Day, in all 
such states as had 
not by that time 
returned to their 
allegiance, the 
slaves should be 
thenceforth and 
forever free. This 
did not affect the 
slaves in the loyal 
border states, who 
were left to be set 
free by other meas- 
ures ; but it was a 
guarantee that the 
reestablishment of 
the authority of 

1 From a photograph of the bronze group situated in Park Square, 
Boston, which was unveiled December 9, 1879. It is a duplicate of the 
Freedmen's Memorial Statue erected in Lincoln Square, Washington, 
which was unveiled by President Grant, April 14, 1876. It was designed 
by Thomas Ball. The kneeling negro is a faithful portrait of Archer 
Alexander, who was, I believe, the last fugitive slave captured in Missouri 
under the old state laws. At the time of his capture he was in the em- 
ploy of my dear friend, Rev. William Greenleaf Eliot, the late noble and 
revered Chancellor of the Washington University, at St. Louis. On the 
very day of his capture, March 30, 1863, the poor negro was restored to 
freedom by Dr. Eliot, with the aid of military law administered through 
President Lincoln's provost-marshal. The whole story, as thrilling as 
anything in Uncle Tom's Cabin, should be read in Dr. Eliot's beautiful and 
touching little book, The Story of Archer Alexander, Boston, 1885. 




EMANCIPATION GROUP.l 



398 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

the United States government would witness the final 
abolition of slavery. 

146. Grant and Rosecrans in the "West, etc. The 
Sioux Indians had for some time complained, prob- 
ably with reason, of ill treatment at the hands of 
white settlers and government officials. In the sum- 
mer of 1862, while our armies were occupied at the 
South, these red men invaded Minnesota and Iowa, 
The Sioux and massacred nearly a thousand men, women, 
War * and children, with circumstances of the most 

horrible barbarity. A small Federal force soon sup- 
pressed these Indians, and several of their leaders were 
convicted of murder and hanged. 

Late in the summer of 1862, the Confederate army, 
under General Bragg, starting out from Chattanooga, 
invasion of invaded the state of Kentucky. Coming at 
Kentucky, the sa me time with Lee's invasion of Mary- 
land, this move created much excitement at the North, 
but the Confederates gained nothing by it, and after a 
bloody battle at Perryville, October 8, they retreated 
upon Chattanooga. 

Meanwhile Rosecrans, who commanded Grant's left 
wing at Corinth, was attacked by the Confederates, who 
hoped to drive him back upon the Tennessee River ; 
but in two battles — Iuka, September 19, and Corinth, 
October 3 and 4 — Rosecrans was victorious. He was 
soon afterward appointed to command the Army of the 
The battle Cumberland in place of Buell. On December 
of stone 31 and January 2, a great battle was fought 
between Rosecrans and Bragg at Stone River. 
More than 20,000 men were killed or wounded, and 
Bragg was obliged to retire from the field, but the Fed- 
eral army gained no decisive advantage, and no further 
approach toward Chattanooga was made until the next 
summer. 



§ i 4 d SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 399 

That New Year saw the first repulse of the Federal 
troops at Vicksburg, which they were preparing to in- 
vest. On December 29, General Sherman assaulted 
the bluffs north of the town, and was defeated, vicksbmg 
The Confederates had made Vicksburg one of assaulted. 
the strongest military positions known to history, and 
all winter Grant labored in vain to get near enough to 
attack it. The problem was so remarkable that a brief 
explanation of it will be found interesting. 

The Mississippi River flows through a soft soil, in 
which it is continually cutting fresh channels and chang- 
ing its course. The strip of flat country, averaging 
about forty miles in width, which forms its basin, is in- 
tersected by a network of bayous or sluggish streams, 
sometimes deep enough to be navigable, and it is cov- 
ered with swamps and jungle. On these low, flat shores 
the Confederates could not build fortifications that 
could withstand the Federal river fleets. But on the 
eastern side the basin of the great river is bounded by 
the lofty plains of Tennessee and Mississippi, which 
terminate in precipitous bluffs ; and here and there, at 
long intervals, the river sweeps close up to the bluffs 
and washes their base. Among these points are Mem- 
phis, Vicksburg, Grand Gulf, and Port Hudson. These 
places stand on the summit of high bluffs, and they can 
destroy warships with a plunging fire, without incurring 
much damage in return. Hence it is almost impossible 
to assault them in front from the river ; the only way of 
approaching them safely is from the east or rear side. 

After the fall of Corinth had exposed Memphis to at- 
tack from the rear, the Confederates lost con- 

1 pi t»x- ■ • • -r-. • Importance 

trol 01 the Mississippi River down to Vicks- of vicks- 
burg. That place, as well as Grand Gulf and pon H^d- 
Port Hudson, they strongly fortified, and from son- 



400 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



.HAINES BLUFF 




V_ 



^<v' 



CLINTON 

3 vic>'- -AaSf in*'* Champion's j *Ck. 
v j^r^^y^^ am JACKS 

EDWAR° S r 

h 7Jv ° RAYMOND 

^WARRENTON /s. -O ^ 



JACKSON 1 




\ 



LLOW SPRINGS/ 



S 



% 



s 



* 



Lto u i/s i An a 



fPORT HUDSON/ 



Vicksburg to Port Hudson, 
250 miles, they held the 
river in their grasp. Be- 
tween these two points the 
Red River empties into the 
Mississippi, and the Red 
River was the military road 
by which men and supplies 
could be sent from Texas, 
Louisiana, and Arkansas to 
the central and eastern re- 
gions of the Confederacy. 
In this way, too, the South 
could still communicate 
with Europe in a round- 
about way through Mexico. 
The capture of Vicksburg 
and Port Hudson by the 
Federals meant the cutting 
off of one of the most important sources of supplies for 
the South, and the final completion of the blockade. It 
would be one of the most damaging blows that could be 
struck at the Confederacy. 



THE VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN, 1863. 



§ 146. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 4OI 

Grant's first movement toward Vicksburg, in Decem- 
ber, 1862, was by the rear, through the state of Missis- 
sippi ; but by the time he had advanced from Corinth 
halfway toward Jackson, the Confederates succeeded in 
destroying the railroad behind him, and cutting Attempts 
off his supplies, so that he was obliged to re- p° ro a £ h 
treat in order to escape starvation. It was vicksburg. 
during this retreat that Sherman made the unsuccessful 
assault already mentioned. Notwithstanding Sherman's 
failure, it was for various reasons thought best to make 
the next attempt from the river, and accordingly about 
the first of February, 1863, Grant took his army down 
the river to Young's Point, on the west bank, opposite 
Vicksburg. 

In order to take the city, it was necessary to cross 
the river and get into the rear of it, but this seemed 
next to impossible. It was doubtful if any assault would 
succeed where Sherman's had failed, between Vicks- 
burg and Haines' Bluff; the ground was too difficult. 
But to land an army anywhere south of Vicksburg 
was to put it in danger of starving ; for the guns of 
Vicksburg were likely to prevent vessels from pass- 
ing down the river with food, and the guns of Port Hud- 
son were likely to prevent any such vessels from passing 
up. During the whole of February and March, Grant 
was busy with two experiments : 1. He tried, by dig- 
ging canals and deepening channels, to make a con- 
nected passage through the network of bayous west of 
the Mississippi, so that supply ships might be sent be- 
low Vicksburg without coming within range of its guns. 
2. He tried to find a passage available for gunboats 
through the labyrinth of bayous to the north, so that 
with the aid of the fleet he might secure a foothold 
for the army beyond Haines' Bluff, and thence come 



402 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

down upon the rear of Vicksburg. Both plans were 
Titanlike in their boldness, both contended with insu- 
perable difficulties, and both failed. 

Grant's next scheme was so daring that none of his 
generals approved of it. While Sherman's division 
kept threatening to assault Haines' Bluff, the rest of the 




GUNBOATS PASSING VICKSBURG BY NIGHT. 1 

army was gradually moved down to Hard Times, and 
Movement Porter's fleet ran down past the batteries of 
south of Vicksburg and as far as Grand Gulf. . Several 
vicksburg. squadrons of supply ships also ran past, incur- 
ring more or less damage. In concert with these move- 

1 By permission, from the painting by James E. Taylor. This shows 
Admiral Porter's gunboat fleet passing the batteries at Vicksburg on the 
night of April 16, 1863. In the foreground is seen a yawl in which Gen- 
eral Sherman is being rowed out to the flagship Benton, to consult with 
Porter. The original painting was made for General Sherman from 
sketches and plans furnished by Admiral Porter. 



§ 146. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 403 

ments, Grierson's cavalry made a brilliant raid through 
the eastern part of the state of Mississippi, cutting rail- 
roads and telegraphs, and diverting attention from 
Grant's operations. 

All this time Vicksburg was commanded by General 
Pemberton, but Johnston, with reinforcements, was on 
his way to take command of the place, and was already 
approaching the state capital, Jackson. Grant now pro- 
ceeded to carry out the boldest part of his scheme. 
On the last day of April he crossed the river to Bruins- 
burg, and next day defeated part of Pemberton's army 
at Port Gibson. The Confederates were thus forced to 
abandon Grand Gulf. On May 7 Grant advanced with 
his left wing toward Bolton and his right to- » , .„. . 

o A brilliant 

ward Raymond. He did not try to keep up a campaign. 
line of communication with Grand Gulf ; his soldiers 
carried in their knapsacks rations for five days, and reck- 
oned upon finding poultry, beeves, and corn, along the 
way. Sherman's division had now joined the rest of 
the army. In a second battle at Raymond and a third 
at Jackson, part of Johnston's army was defeated, and 
he was obliged to retreat to Canton. While Sherman 
tore up all the railroads about Jackson, Grant turned 
westward, encountered Pemberton at Champion's Hill, 
and defeated him with heavy slaughter. The next day 
Pemberton tried to hold the bridge over Big Black River, 
and there in a fifth battle Grant was once more victo- 
rious. Pemberton retired into Vicksburg, and evacuated 
Haines' Bluff, which was no longer tenable. Grant im- 
mediately seized that fortress, which commanded all the 
northern approaches to Vicksburg, and his own supplies 
were now secure. This was the 18th day of May, eleven 
days since he had cut loose from Grand Gulf. In that 
brief time he had marched two hundred miles, defeated 



404 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

two armies in five battles, captured about ninety cannon, 
and solved the problem of investing Vicksburg. There 
was something Napoleonic in this. 

Grant now made two attempts to take Vicksburg by- 
storm, not wishing to allow time for Johnston to come 
to its relief. But the assaults failed, and Grant laid 
siege to the city. Unless Johnston should succeed in 
interfering, its fall was only a question of time. While 
these things were going on, a Federal army, under Gen- 
eral Banks, had laid close siege to Port Hudson. 

147. Reverses in the East. Meanwhile, things had 
been going badly in Virginia. Burnside had superseded 
McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac. 
™ i ., On December 13, 1862, he assaulted Lee in 

The battles . . 

of Freder- a strong position at Fredericksburg, and was 
and Chan- defeated with a loss of 12,000 men. Burn- 
ceiiorsviiie. g - ( j e wag then SU p ersec i ec i by Joseph Hooker, 

and little more was done till spring. At Chancellors- 
ville, May 1 to 4, Hooker with 90,000 men attacked 
Lee, who had only 45,000; but Lee handled his troops 
with such skill, that at every point where fighting was 
going on the Federals were outnumbered. This bat- 
tle, in which nearly 30,000 were killed or wounded, 
was the worst defeat experienced by any Union army 
during the war. Here Stonewall Jackson made a 
flank march against the Federal right wing, which was 
one of his greatest achievements, as it was his last ; 
he was mortally wounded, and died a few days after- 
wards. 

148. The Turning of the Tide. After this great 
battle Lee pushed past Hooker's army and marched 
through western Maryland into Pennsylvania, threaten- 
ing not only Washington, but even Baltimore and Phila- 
delphia. He could hardly hope to conduct a long cam- 



§ 148. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 405 

paign north of the Potomac, but if he could win another 
such victory as that of Chancellorsville, he might per- 
haps capture Washington. The South still entertained 
a hope that England and France might in that Lee ! s in- 
case help the Confederacy, though since Lin- p^nsyf 
coin's proclamation of emancipation it was no vania - 
doubt too late for anything of the sort. Lee's north- 
ward advance was watched by all the loyal states With 
great anxiety. Stanton, the secretary of war, had in- 
tended to have Hooker removed from command, when 
differences of opinion between Hooker and Halleck led 
the former to ask to be relieved. On the eve of battle 
the command of the Army of the Potomac was given 
to one of the ablest of its corps commanders, George 
Gordon Meade. 

The little town of Gettysburg controlled the roads 
between Lee's army and the Potomac River. If seized 
by Meade, it would threaten Lee's communications. 
Accordingly both generals threw forward a part of their 
forces toward that point, and on July I two The battle 
corps of the Union army, under Reynolds and burgfjuiy 
Howard, encountered the Confederate van, I_ 3> l86 3- 
under Ambrose Powell Hill, a little to the north of Get- 
tysburg. A severe battle ensued, in which Reynolds 
was killed, and after another Confederate corps, under 
Ewell, had arrived on the scene, the Federals were 
driven back through the town, but their antagonists did 
not pursue them. The Federals were presently rein- 
forced by Hancock's corps, and took their stand along 
the crest of Cemetery Ridge, a chain of small hills just 
south of Gettysburg. It was a position of formidable 
strength, and Meade brought up the rest of the army to 
secure it. 

On July 2 the gallant Army of the Potomac was en- 



406 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



camped along Cemetery Ridge, and Lee's army con- 
fronted it in a concave line extending along Seminary 
Ridge and past the town of Gettysburg to Rock Creek. 
General Longstreet, with the Confederate right wing, 
attacked the projecting angle 1 formed by Sickles's corps 




BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 



in front of the hills called Round Top and Little Round 
Top. If Longstreet could have won these hills, the 
Union army might have been driven from the ridge and 

1 In military language such a projecting angle is called a salient. It 
is a weak formation, because there is a point in front from which the 
enemy's fire can enfilade or rake both its sides. In spite of this defect, 
the salient has its uses. 



§ I4«- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



407 



defeated. After a desperate tight, the Sickles angle 
was driven in, but the Federals held the Round Top 
hills securely. At the other end of the line there was 
also severe fighting; Ewell tried to capture Culp's Hill 
and gain the Baltimore road ; he secured a foothold on 




PICKETT'S CHARGE AT GETTYSBURG. 1 

Culp's Hill and passed the night there, but at daybreak 
Meade attacked him with great fury and drove him off. 

Thus both the Confederate attacks on July 2 had 
failed, and both the Union flanks were safe. Lee's 
only remaining hope of defeating Meade was to break 
through his centre. About one o'clock, on July 3, he 
began a mighty cannonade, and after a couple of hours 

1 From the cyclorama of the Battle of Gettysburg, by permission of 
The National Panorama Co. 



408 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

sent forward General Pickett, with a column of 15,000 
men, against Hancock's position. This gallant and des- 
perate charge was repulsed with terrible slaughter, and 
the Union army remained victorious. Lee kept his 
position through the 4th of July, and next day began his 
retreat to Virginia. 

In this tremendous battle about 80,000 Union troops 
were engaged, and their loss in killed, wounded, and 
missing was over 23,000. The Confederate army num- 
bered about 73,000, and its losses reached 31,000. 
Probably no field of battle was ever more obstinately 
contested. 

Scarcely had the news from Gettysburg reached peo- 
ple's ears when it was also learned that on the 4th of 
July the great stronghold of Vicksburg had surrendered 
to General Grant. Since May 18 his grasp 

1 he cap- J 1 

tureof upon that position had not been relaxed. 
lS urg " Johnston had not succeeded in approaching 
the place, or in disturbing Grant's operations in any 
way ; and when people in the city were nearly starving, 
and Pemberton saw that there was no hope of relief 
from outside, he surrendered the place, with his army 
of 32,000 men. A few days afterward Port Hudson 
surrendered to General Banks, and in the vigorous lan- 
guage of President Lincoln, "the Father of Waters 
rolled unvexed to the sea." Grant was made a major- 
general in the regular army, and was henceforth the 
most conspicuous commander on the Northern side. 
The importance of the capture of Vicksburg could not 
be overrated. The military pressure which could be 
brought to bear upon the remaining portions of the 
Confederacy was greatly increased. The Army of the 
Tennessee was soon free to go and help the Army of 
the Cumberland. 



§§ i 4 8, 149. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 409 

After Gettysburg and Vicksburg, it became clear to 
all open-minded observers that the South was playing a 
desperate and losing game. But its capacity for resist- 
ance was not yet at an end. 

149. How the "War was Supported. After war 
had begun, the cost of the Federal army and navy soon 
reached $1,000,000 per day, and before the end of 1863 
it had risen to three times that amount. To meet such 
formidable expenses, it was necessary to resort to un- 
usual ways of raising revenue. The duties on imposts 
were in many cases increased, and there were The Green . 
various kinds of internal taxes, as, for example, backs - 
on incomes, and on pianos, billiard-tables, gold watches, 
and other things classed as luxuries. Stamps were re- 
quired on all bank checks and receipted bills, as well as 
on many legal and commercial documents. Besides 
this increase of taxation, Congress resorted to borrow- 
ing sums of money, in exchange for which it issued 
bonds bearing interest at a specified rate ; at the end of 
a specified time such bonds were to be redeemed. But 
all these methods seemed insufficient, and in 1862 Con- 
gress passed the Legal Tender Act, authorizing the 
issue of small promissory notes, similar to bank bills. 
From their color these notes were called "greenbacks." 
They were made a " legal tender ; " that is to say, any 
debtor could offer them instead of gold in discharge of 
a debt, and the creditor could not refuse to receive them. 
There were only two exceptions to the legal tender 
quality of the notes. It was felt that the credit of the 
government would be better sustained, and its bonds 
more readily taken, if the interest on the national debt 
were to be paid in coin ; this was therefore decreed, 
and in order to get the needful coin, all custom-house 
duties had to be paid in gold. 



FACSIMILE OF MR. LINCOLN'S AUTOGRAPHIC COPY OF THE GETTYSBURG ADDRESS, MADE 
BY HIM FOR THE SOLDIERS* AND SAILORS' FAIR AT BALTIMORE, IN 1864. 1 



. ^/$&UU<a4 0U£oueAJL0u cBt*"£&* 0*« c«Se* 422** efttfc 

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1 Fron Abraham Lincoln : A History, by John G. Nicolay and John Hay. 
By permission of the authors. 

For its quiet depth of feeling and solemn beauty of expression this speech is 
ightly regarded as one of the great masterpieces of English prose. 



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ifaremM* /f. /fCf 9 



412 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

All coin disappeared from circulation, even silver 
dimes and quarters. For a short time people accepted 
postage-stamps for small change, but soon Congress is- 
sued little notes for the purpose, and these remained in 
circulation for several years. The value of the green- 
backs fluctuated according to the extent of people's 
faith that they would ever be redeemed. A Federal 
victory would send them up, a Confederate success 
would send them down ; but as time went on without 
seeing the war ended, the downward tendency inclined 
to prevail. Early in 1862 the greenback dollar was 
equivalent to 98 cents in gold; late in 1863 it had 
fallen to about 75 cents ; and the lowest point was 
reached in July, 1864, a year after Gettysburg and 
Vicksburg, when it was worth scarcely more than 35 
cents. The prices of all articles bought with these 
paper notes rose to an extravagant point. 

An excellent National Bank act was passed in 1863. 
It had nothing to do with the old National Bank question 
that men argued and almost fought over in the days of 
Andrew Jackson. It was a device for guaranteeing the 
issues of local banks in all parts of the country. It pro- 
vided that any bank which should deposit United States 
bonds with the United States Treasurer at 

The 

National Washington could issue notes to the amount 

Bo.nk net 

of nine tenths of the par value of these bonds. 
Banks making such deposits were known as national 
banks. Since the notes were secured by the bonds, 
each national bank had the credit of the United States 
behind it ; consequently the notes were accepted as 
widely as greenbacks. Hitherto the notes of a state 
bank were liable to be refused in places distant from 
home, and this was often inconvenient and annoying. 
Afterwards the notes of state banks, that had not 



§ 149- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 413 

obtained the national guarantee, were extinguished by 
putting a tax upon them. 

In May, 1863, as voluntary enlistments seemed to be 
proceeding too slowly for the needs of the army, Con- 
gress passed an act providing for a conscrip- The Draft 
tion or draft. This act was not a severe one, Riots - 
nor was it very rigorously enforced. Any conscript, or 
" drafted " person, could be exempted from service by 
hiring a substitute, or providing $300 for that purpose. 
Various other exemptions were permitted. But the 
draft was generally disliked, and served to sharpen and 
embitter the discontent which prevailed after the defeat 
at Chancellorsville. In some places the wave of feeling 
grew so strong that even the glorious victories of the 
first week in July failed to check it. In New York, 
on the 13th of that month, resistance took on the 
form of a riot, and a mob of ruffians held control of 
the city for four days, burning and plundering. The 
negro race, as the innocent cause of the war, was an ob- 
ject of special odium and violence ; many negroes were 
hanged to lamp-posts, an asylum for colored orphans 
was burned, and the lives of prominent abolitionists were 
threatened. It was necessary to call a few regiments 
from the army, and they quickly dispersed the rioters 
with heavy slaughter. 

The Confederate States could raise no revenue from 
imports, for all their ports were blockaded, and from 
internal taxes on a great variety of articles Distress at 
they could not raise nearly so much as the the South - 
United States. They issued bonds and notes which 
fell in value as the war went on until they became mere 
waste paper. In the autumn of 1863 a suit of clothes 
in Richmond cost $700 in currency, and flour was $100 
per barrel ; before the war ended, it was $ 1 500 per 



414 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

barrel. Conscription was resorted to early in the war ; 
late in 1863 it was extended to all men between the 
ages of 17 and 55, and substitutes were not allowed. 

150. The Campaign in Tennessee. In September, 
Rosecrans compelled Bragg to evacuate Chattanooga, 
but in manoeuvring among the mountains south of that 
place he became exposed to attack under unfavorable 
circumstances. Longstreet was sent by Lee from Vir- 
ginia to Bragg's assistance, and thus strongly rein- 
forced, Bragg came to blows with Rosecrans 
ofchicka- in the valley of Chickamauga, September 19 
and 20. It was a fearful contest, in which 
125,000 men were engaged, and nearly 40,000 were 
killed or wounded. The Federal right wing was routed 
and driven off the field, but the left wing, commanded 
by General Thomas, held its own and saved the army. 
But for this, Chickamauga might have been a Federal 
disaster capable of offsetting the victory at Gettysburg. 
No war known to history has seen more magnificent 
fighting than that of Thomas at Chickamauga. As it 
was, the advantage in that battle was slightly with the 
Confederates. 

Rosecrans held Chattanooga, which was the prize of 
the campaign, but Bragg besieged him there, occupy- 
ing the strong positions of Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
sionary Ridge, and cutting off most of the avenues of 
supply. For a short time, the Union army in Chatta- 
nooga seemed in danger of starving. In October, Rose- 
crans was removed, and the command of the Army 
of the Cumberland was given to Thomas. The Army 
of the Tennessee, now commanded by Sherman, was 
brought up from Vicksburg. Grant was put in com- 
mand of both these armies, and of all forces west of 
the Alleghanies. Hooker was sent from Virginia with 



§§150,151. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 415 

reinforcements, so that in the next great battle portions 
of all three of the main Federal armies took „, , , 

t-i i-i r The battle 

part. That battle, which was fought about ofchatta- 
Chattanooga, November 24 and 25, was the only n00ga ' 
one of the war in which the four most famous Union 
generals — Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan — 
were all present together. Bragg was totally defeated, 
and the area of the Confederacy was practically cut 
down to the four states of Georgia, the two Carolinas, 
and Virginia. 

151. General Grant in Virginia. In March, 1864, 
Grant was made lieutenant-general, — a rank which 
before him had been held only by Washington and 
Scott among United States commanders. Henceforth, 
Grant commanded all the Federal armies, but Grant 
gave his immediate attention to the Army of ^nant-«en- 
the Potomac, which Meade continued to com- eraL 
mand under his supervision. Grant advanced directly 
against Lee along the difficult route from Fredericks- 
burg to Richmond, and in the course of May and June, 
1864, in the fearful battles of the Wilderness, Spottsyl- 
vania, and Cold Harbor, he lost 64,000 men, and at 
length reached the Chickahominy River, near McClel- 
lan's old positions. He did not stay there, but crossed 
the James River and advanced upon Petersburg, where 
Lee continued to hold him at bay till the next spring. 
In the course of the summer, Lee was even able once 
more to alarm the government at Washington by send- 
ing Jubal Early on an expedition through the Shenan- 
doah valley. After a romantic campaign, Early was 
completely defeated by Sheridan. On one occasion, Oc- 
tober 19, while Sheridan was at Winchester, Early sud- 
denly attacked his army at Cedar Creek, nearly twenty 
miles away. The Union army was driven back about 




The portrait of Grant is the one referred to in connection with the 
Lincoln portrait on page 369. The other four are from the collection of 
the Massachusetts Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. 



§§151-153- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 417 

seven miles. Meanwhile, Sheridan, who had heard the 
distant sound of cannon, was galloping at full speed to- 
ward the scene of action. As he approached the field 
and met squads of fugitives on the road, he shouted, 
"Turn, boys, turn; we're going back." One and all 
rallied to his side, and defeat was soon turned into 
victory. 

152. The Capture of Atlanta. After Bragg's defeat 
at Chattanooga, he was superseded by Joseph Johnston, 
who was obliged to retreat further and further into 
Georgia before Sherman's superior force. After the 
three battles of Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, 
in which about 35,000 men were killed or wounded, 
Sherman reached Atlanta. Johnston was superseded 
by Hood, who made two bloody but unavailing sorties, 
and, on September 2, Sherman took Atlanta. 

153. The Approach of the End. The South was 
nearly exhausted, although Lee's prolonged resistance, 
and such threatening attempts as Early's, still disguised 
the fact from many people. Clothes, food, and imple- 
ments of war were getting scarce, and the blockade was 
kept up so strictly that supplies could not get Exhaus . 
into southern ports. One by one these ports tion of the 
had themselves fallen into the hands of the 
Federal navy, and one of the last was Mobile, the har- 
bor of which was finally closed by Farragut's victory, 
in August, 1864. Nothing was left but Fort Fisher, in 
North Carolina, which surrendered to General Terry 
and Admiral Porter, in the following January. As for 
the Confederate cruisers on the ocean, they were cap- 
tured one after another. The most famous of The fate 
them, the Alabama, encountered the United of the Ala- 
States frigate Kearsarge, off the coast of 
France, and in a fight of less than an hour was knocked 
to pieces and sunk. 



41 8 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln for a 
second term, and with him they nominated for vice- 
president a War Democrat, Andrew Johnson, who, after 
j the fall of Fort Donelson, had been appointed 
tion of military governor of Tennessee. A faction of 
radical Republicans, who were dissatisfied with 
Lincoln, nominated Fremont, but he withdrew from the 
contest before the election. The Democrats nominated 
General McClellan, and in their platform called for a 
cessation of hostilities on the ground that the war was 
a failure. In the election, eleven states, concerned in 
the rebellion, did not vote. Of the electoral votes, Lin- 
coln obtained 212, and McClellan 21. 

154. Sherman's March to the Sea. After Sherman 

took Atlanta, Hood moved northwestwardly into middle 

The b tti Tennessee, hoping to draw Sherman after him 

of Nash- and relieve Georgia. But the Federal supe- 
ville. ... * ™ 

rionty m numbers was such that Sherman 

could now afford to divide his army. He sent back 
part of it under Thomas to look after Hood. As for 
himself, he continued his march through Georgia. 
Hood was repulsed at Franklin, November 30, by Scho- 
field. His ruin was completed by Thomas in the great 
battle of Nashville, December 15 and 16, where 100,000 
men were engaged. Hood lost more than 15,000 men, 
and his army was routed and scattered. Resistance at 
the West thus came to an end. 

About the middle of November, Sherman had started 
from Atlanta with 60,000 men, and marched through 
Georgia to the seacoast, where he captured Savannah 
The march J ust before Christmas. All along the three 
through hundred miles of his march he destroyed the 
railroads and devastated a belt of fertile coun- 
try sixty miles in width, destroying the last resources 



§ »55- 



SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 



419 



that might be available for the remnant of the Confed- 
eracy in the Carolinas and Virginia. 

155. The End of the War. It thus became impos- 
sible for Lee to hold out much longer. In February, 
Sherman began his advance northward through the 
Carolinas, again encountering Johnston, whom he de- 
feated at Goldsborough, March 19. Lee's last chance 
was to abandon Richmond to its fate and effect a junc- 




Copjright, 1887, by The Centurj Co. 

VILLAGE OF APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE. 1 



tion with Johnston. This scheme was frustrated by 
Sheridan in the battle of Five Forks, April 1, which 
turned Lee's right flank and threatened his rear. Next 
morning, the Confederates were obliged to abandon 
Petersburg. Their government fled from Rich- 
mond, and Lee, driven westward, was headed 
off at Appomattox Court House, where, on the 
9th of April, he surrendered to Grant the remnant 



Lee's sur- 
render at 
Appomat- 
tox. 



1 From a war-time photograph reproduced in Battles and Leaders of the 
Civil War. The house on the right, with the veranda, is Mr. McLean's 
house, in which the articles of capitulation were agreed upon and signed. 



420 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XV. 



of his army, only 26,000 men. A fortnight later, 
Johnston surrendered his army to Sherman. On the 
10th of May, Jefferson Davis was captured near Irwins- 
ville, in Georgia, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress 
Monroe. 1 

The public rejoicings at the end of the war were 




Copyright, 1887, by The Century Co. 
UNION SOLDIERS SHARING THEIR RATIONS WITH CONFEDERATES AFTER 
LEE'S SURRENDER. 2 

turned into such deep and heartfelt sorrow as has sel- 
dom been caused by the death of any public man. On 
the evening of April 14, as President Lincoln was sit- 
ting in a box at Ford's Theatre, in Washington, with 
wife and friends about him, a man came quietly into 
the box behind him and shot him through the head. 

1 In 1866, Davis was indicted for treason, but was released on bail in 
the following year, and the proceedings against him were dropped. His 
later years were spent quietly at his home in Mississippi. He died in 
1889. 

2 From a war-time sketch reproduced in Battles and Leaders of tkt 
Civil War. 



§ 155- SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 42 I 

The assassin then leaped upon the stage, shouting, 
" Sic semper tyrannis " (So be it always to m 

. . . - , The assas- 

tyrants). One of his spurs caught in the folds sination of 
of the American flag that was draped in front 
of the box, so that he was thrown heavily to the floor 
and broke a leg. The confusion was so great that in 
spite of this accident he escaped through a stage door. 
The man who had chosen this theatrical way of com- 
mitting murder was a young actor named John Wilkes 
Booth. The crime was part of a conspiracy, and, on 
that same evening, the secretary of state, William 
Seward, was attacked and stabbed, though not fatally, 
in his own house. The details of the conspiracy were 
unravelled. Booth was hunted down by soldiers and 
shot in a barn ; four of his accomplices were hanged, 
and others imprisoned for life. The conspirators had 
hoped to paralyze the government, but within three 
hours after the noble and beloved Lincoln had passed 
away, Andrew Johnson had begun to act as president. 

topics and questions. 

129. Review of the Situation as to Slavery. 

1. How the Ohio River came to be a dividing line between 

freedom and slavery. 

2. Concessions to slaveholders : 

a. The apportionment of representation. 

b. The slave trade. 

c. Fugitive slaves. 

3. The first dispute over the slavery question and how it 

was compromised. 

4. Why did the slaveholders press a second time for more 

territory ? 

5. How did they secure it ? 

6. Westward expansion and the third opening of the slavery 

question. 

130. The Compromises of 1850. 

1. Settling the slavery question forever. 



422 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

2. The question up again in the case of California. 

3. Henry Clay's efforts to satisfy both parties. 

4. The two essential points of the compromise measures. 

5. The accession of Fillmore to the presidency. 

6. The invasion of Cuba. 

7. The election of 1852. 

131. The Slavery Question Uppermost. 

1. The slavery discussion renewed. 

2. New leaders of the people. 

3. The Fugitive Slave Law : 

a. Its design. 

b. The law of 1793. 

c. The rise and character of the " personal liberty " laws. 

d. The law of 1850. 

e. Its denial of a trial by jury. 

f. More stringent " personal liberty " laws. 

g. Effect of the enforcement of the law on the North. 
h. The Anthony Burns episode. 

4. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 

5. The " underground railroad." 

6. Filibustering expeditions and their motive. 

7. The Ostend Manifesto. 

132. The Kansas-Nebraska .Bill. 

1. Why was the repeal of the Missouri Compromise desired ? 

2. How had some southern statesmen viewed it ? 

3. Tell about Douglas, and his interest in the Platte country. 

4. What were his views about admitting states as slave or 

free? 

5. How was his theory named, and why ? 

6. What were the leading features of his famous bill ? 

7. What was the effect of its passage on the North and 

the South ? 

8. Describe the origin of the Republican party. 

9. What change took place in the character of the Demo- 

cratic party? 

10. Tell the story of the struggle for Kansas. 

11. Give an illustration of the evil passions kindled by this 

strife. 

133. The Know-Nothing Party. 

1 . What led to the formation of this party ? 

2. Tell its leading principles. 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 425 

3. Account for its peculiar name. 

4. Into what party did it develop ? 

5. What parties contended in the elections of 1856, and with 

what success ? 

134. A Situation Full of Danger. 

1. The South alarmed by the Republican party. 

2. The bold demands of the southern leaders. 

3. The acquiescence of Presidents Pierce and Buchanan. 

4. The Dred Scott case : 

a. Dred Scott's life in Illinois and Minnesota. 

b. What suit did he bring in Missouri, and why? 

c. The decision of the Supreme Court- 

d. The practical effect of this decision. 

5. The resumption of the slave trade. 

6. Forcing a slave constitution on Kansas. 

7. A break heralded in the Democratic party. 

135. The Debate between Lincoln and Douglas. 

1 . The life of Abraham Lincoln : 

a. His parentage. 

b. His schooling. 

c. His early business career. 

d. His political service. 

e. His insight into men and things. 

f. His power in oratory and debate. 

g. Traits of character. 

2. The occasion for the debate. 

3. The effect on Douglas's career. 

136. Differences Past Healing. 

1. The career and character of John Brown. 

2. His raid on Harper's Ferry, and the result. 

3. The motive that led to it. 

4. The effect on the southern mind. 

5. The four parties in the election of i860. 

6. The result of the election, and its cause. 

137. The Secession of Several States. 

1. The action of South Carolina. 

2. The action of other states. 

3. A new government organized. 

4. Its constitution and chief officers. 

5. United States forts and arsenals. 

6. The Crittenden Compromise. 



424 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV, 

7. The Peace Conference. 

8. The uncertain state of northern feeling. 

9. Lincoln at the White House. 

138. A Survey of the Situation. 

1. The changes of seventy years : 

a. In the population of Great Britain and Ireland. 

b. In the population of the United States. 

c. In the merchant shipping of the United States. 

d. In the population of the free states and slave. 

e. In the wealth of the free states and slave. 

2. A military advantage of the South. 

3. Three disappointments of the South : 

a. As to the attitude of all the slave states. 

b. As to the attitude of the northern Democrats. 

c. As to the attitude of France and England. 

4. The blockade expected by the South, and why ? 

5. The effect of the blockade on cotton exports and English 

business. 

6. The refusal of France to recognize southern independence. 

7. The refusal of England to recognize southern indepen- 

dence. 

139. Beginning of the War. 

1. The capture of Fort Sumter: 

a. The ownership of the fort if the right of secession 

existed. 

b. The ownership of the fort if the right of secession 

did not exist. 

c. President Buchanan's attitude towards the question. 

d. President Lincoln's action on the question. 

e. The warning of Robert Toombs. 

f. The action of Jefferson Davis. 

g. The bombardment. 

2. Three proclamations. 

3. The first bloodshed. 

140. The Limits of the Rebellion Defined. 

1. Effect on the North of the capture of Fort Sumter. 

2. The patriotic stand of Douglas. 

3. The feeling in the border states. 

4. Union sentiment in the South. 

5. How Virginia gave strength to the Confederacy. 

6. How Missouri was saved to the Union. 



Cif. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 425 

7. How Kentucky's stand was determined : 

a. Divisions in public sentiment. 

b. President Lincoln's policy. 

c. The Confederate invasion and its effect. 

d. The Union reply. 

e. The action of the Kentucky legislature. 
[41. First Heavy Fighting. 

1. The battle of Bull Run. 

2. Its effect on the North and the South. 

3. Other military events in the East : 

4. The Trent affair : 

a. The Confederate commissioners. 

b. Their capture. 

c. Why they were given up. 

5. Confederate cruisers. 

142. A Revolution in Naval Warfare. 

1. The transformation of the Merrimac. 

2. The havoc it wrought in Hampton Roads. 

3. The consternation of the North. 

4. The Monitor and its turret. 

5. The battle of the ironclads. 

6. The effect of this battle on the navies of the world. 

143. Confederate Lines of Defense in the Southwest. 

1 . The position of the first Confederate line. 

2. The armies opposed to the Confederates. 

3. General Thomas and the Confederate right. 

4. General Grant and the Confederate centre. 

5. The capture of Fort Donelson and its consequences (1) 

for Grant and (2) for the Confederacy. 

6. The position of the second Confederate line. 

7. The battle of Shiloh and the result. 

8. The blockade of the coast. 

9. The Mississippi opened from below. 

10. The Mississippi opened from above. 

1 1 . The only Confederate strongholds left. 

144. McClellan in Virginia. 

1. McClellan's plan of advance against Richmond. 

2. The government's wish, and the reason for it. 

3. The route determined upon. 

4. Measures to guard Washington. 

5. The siege of Yorktown. 



426 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

6. The battle of Fair Oaks. 

7. " Stonewall " Jackson in the Shenandoah. 

8. The seven days' battles. 

9. Halleck and his disposition of the Union armies. 

10. The second battle of Bull Run. 

11. Lee's invasion of Maryland and his reception there. 

12. The capture of Harper's Ferry. 

13. The battle of Antietam, and what came of it. 

145. The Emancipation of the Slaves. 

1. Why Lincoln had no thought at first of interfering with 

slavery. 

2. The problem of dealing with runaway slaves. 

3. The rule of modern warfare relating to private property. 

4. The rule of modern warfare relating to " contraband of 

war." 

5. General Butler's solution of the " runaway slave " prob- 

lem. 

6. Union commanders freeing slaves by proclamation. 

7. Why Lincoln overruled such proclamations. 

8. Growth of the feeling that slavery should be abolished. 

9. A possible method proposed by John Quincy Adams. 
10. Lincoln's immortal proclamation. 

146. Grant and Rosecrans in the West. 

1. The war with the Sioux. 

2. Bragg's invasion of Kentucky. 

3. Victories by Rosecrans. 

4. Grant's investment of Vicksburg: 

a. The Mississippi River and its basin. 

b. Points of strategic advantage. 

c. What the capture of Vicksburg involved. 

d. Grant's first movement against Vicksburg. 

e. Sherman's repulse. 

f. Grant's second movement. 

g. Difficulties to be overcome. 

h. Two experiments and their outcome. 
i. The initial movements of Grant's third scheme. 
j. Eleven days of fighting, and the results. 
k. Vicksburg not yet taken. 
147.' Reverses in the East. 

1. A change in the command of the Army of the Potomac. 

2. The battle of Fredericksburg. 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 427 

3. Another change in the command. 

4. The battle of Chancellorsville. 

5. The death of Stonewall Jackson. 

148. The Turning of the Tide. 

1. Lee's invasion of the North, and what he hoped to gain 

by it. 

2. A change in the command of the Army of the Potomac. 

3. The strategic importance of Gettysburg. 

4. The first day's fight at Gettysburg, and its issue. 

5. The second day's fight, and its issue. 

6. The third day's fight, and its issue. 

7. Numbers engaged and losses suffered. 

8. The capture of Vicksburg. 

9. The capture of Port Hudson. 

10. Importance of the capture of Vicksburg. 

149. How the War was Supported. 

1. The cost of the army and navy. 

2. Unusual ways of raising revenue. 

3. The resort to borrowing. 

4. The Legal Tender Act : 

a. Why the notes under this act were called greenbacks. 

b. Why they were called legal tender. 

c. Two exceptions to their legal tender quality. 

d. Substitutes for cash. 

e. Fluctuations in the gold value of greenbacks. 

5. The National Bank Act. 

6. The advantage of national bank notes over those of the 

old state banks. 

7. The Draft Act, and how it was received. 

8. The New York riots. 

9. Revenue in the Confederate States. 

10. Prices of staple articles in Confederate money. 

11. Conscription in the South. 
r5o. The Campaign in Tennessee. 

1. The battle of Chickamauga. 

2. The Union army shut up in Chattanooga. 

3. Reinforcements for the besieged. 

4. The battle of Chattanooga. 
151. General Grant in Virginia. 

1. Grant made lieutenant-general. 

2. His advance from Fredericksburg to Petersburg. 



428 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

3. Early sent to the Shenandoah. 

4. Defeat turned to victory. 

152. The Capture of Atlanta. 

1. Bragg superseded. 

2. Battles fought to reach Atlanta. 

3. Johnston superseded. 

4. Atlanta taken. 

153. The Approach of the End. 

1. The exhaustion of the South concealed. 

2. Effect of the blockade. 

3. The loss of the southern ports. 

4. The fate of the Alabama. 

5. Nominations for the presidency. 

6. Result of the election. 

154. Sherman's March to the Sea. 

1. Hood's plan to retrieve Georgia. 

2. How Sherman met it. 

3. The battle of Nashville. 

4. The march through Georgia. 

5. The destruction of property. 

155. The End of the War. 

1. Sherman's march northward. 

2. Lee's last chance. 

3. How Sheridan thwarted it. 

4. Petersburg captured. 

5. Lee's surrender. 

6. Johnston's surrender. 

7. The assassination of Lincoln. 

8. The crime a part of a conspiracy. 

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND DIRECTIONS. 

1. What was it that made compromises on slavery questions so 

desirable? What was the object of these compromises? 
What might have happened if these compromises had not 
been made ? What did happen at last in spite of all com- 
promises that were planned to avert it ? 

2. What was the object of the Fugitive Slave Law ? What rea- 

sons were given for it ? What reasons were urged against 
it? The United States Constitution seemed to support 
which view ? The moral sense of people in general inclined 
to which view ? 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 429 

3. Was the "underground railroad" legal or illegal? Was it a 

sin for a slave to run away from his master? Was it a 
crime ? Why was Canada a place of safety for him when 
a free state was not? What is a dilemma? Into what 
dilemma did the Fugitive Slave Law put law-abiding citi- 
zens who believed slavery to be wrong ? 

4. What was the first political party that went into a presidential 

election on a platform of hostility to slavery? What was 
the first successful political party on this platform ? 

5. What was the doctrine of squatter sovereignty ? What is the 

doctrine of local option in temperance matters ? 

6. How did the South defend their view that it was right to 

secede ? What is the constitutional argument against seces- 
sion ? Was the Constitution of the United States made by 
the people or by the States? Has the power that made the 
Union the right to dissolve it ? Whose property was Fort 
Sumter early in 1861 ? Why did the South view its at- 
tempted reinforcement as an act of war? Why did the 
North view the discharge of the first cannon upon Sumter 
as an act of war ? 

7. Number n, of the Old South Lea/lets, general series, contains 

Lincoln's first and second inaugural addresses, his prelimi- 
nary and final emancipation proclamations, and his speech 
at the dedication of the national cemetery at Gettysburg. 
Read them, and find answers in them to such questions as 
these : 

a. What stand did Lincoln take about the Fugitive Slave 

Law? 

b. How did he propose to use his power about Sumter and 

other government property ? 

c. What did he say about continuing the mail service in the 

seceding states ? 

d. Tell some of the objections he urged against secession. 

e. What did he conceive as a possible good reason for revo- 

lution ? 

/ After four years of war, what striking thought does he ex- 
press in his second inaugural about slavery ? 

g. Explain his statement that the cause of the conflict ceased 
before the conflict itself ended. 

h. Commit to memory the closing words of the first inau- 
gural, beginning, " In your hands," etc. 



430 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV. 

2. Commit to memory the closing words of the second in- 
augural, beginning, " With malice towards none," etc. 
j. Commit to memory Lincoln's Gettysburg address. 

8. Find passages in the addresses mentioned, or in incidents of 

Lincoln's life, to show these traits : 

a. His spirit of fairness towards those who would or did 

secede. 

b. His respect for laws whether he liked them or not. 

c. His freedom from passion and bitterness. 

d. His longing for peace and reconciliation. 

e. His devotion to the Union. 

f. His kindness of heart, unselfishness, patience, and other 

traits of character. 

9. Why did the South suffer more than the North ? In answer- 

ing this question, consider for each section (a) its commerce 
and the effect of the war upon it, (b) its manufactures, (c) 
army drafts upon its population, (d) the destruction of its 
property, etc., etc. 

10. In what cases only did the North suffer from the presence of 
hostile armies? 

n. Read Longfellow's poem, The Cumberland. Justify from his- 
tory the various statements and descriptive passages in the 
poem. 

12. Tell about any poems of merit that are based on incidents and 

experiences of the war. 

13. Many southerners who loved the Union went with their states 

as they seceded. Explain this. 

14. What is it to draft men for an army ? On what principle may 

a draft be justified ? Why was the drafting of men to serve 
in the Federal army unpopular ? What evidences of this 
unpopularity were there ? 

TOPICS FOR COLLATERAL READING. 

An excellent work to consult for a popular, and at the same 
time trustworthy, story of the Civil War is Battles and Leaders 
of the Civil War, published by the Century Company, New York. 
Its accounts of the great campaigns and battles of the war are 
contributed largely by officers, both Federal and Confederate, who 
took part in them, many of these officers having been in chief 
command of the forces engaged. Its numerous illustrations save 
for us much of the life and spirit of those thrilling times, and 



Ch. XV. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. 43 I 

greatly enhance, particularly for young people, the interest of the 
record. For schools that find it inexpedient to obtain the origi- 
nal work in four volumes, there is an illustrated abridgment which 
is less expensive. The following topics, contributed by the emi 
nent authorities whose names are attached, will give some idea 
of the wealth and value of the material at the disposal of those 
who would know in greater detail the story of the war, and are ad- 
mirable for collateral reading : 

1. The first battle of Bull Run, by General G. T. Beauregard. 

2. The capture of Fort Donelson, by General Lew Wallace. 

3. The battle of Shiloh, by General U. S. Grant. 

4. The building of the Monitor, by Captain John Ericsson. 

5. The first fight of ironclads, by Colonel John T. Wood. 

6. The opening of the lower Mississippi, by Admiral D. D. 

Porter. 

7. McClellan organizing the grand army, by Philippe, Comte 

de Paris. 

8. The peninsular campaign, by General George B. McClellan. 

9. Manassas to Seven Pines, by General Joseph E. Johnston. 

10. Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah, by General John D. 

Imboden. 

11. The seven days' fighting, by Generals Fitz John Porter, 

Daniel H. Hill, W. B. Franklin, James Longstreet, and 
others. 

12. Lee's invasion of Maryland, by General George B. McClellan. 

13. Gettysburg, by Generals James Longstreet, Henry J. Hunt, 

and others. 

14. The Vicksburg campaign, by General U. S. Grant. 

15. Chattanooga, by General U. S. Grant. 

16. The Wilderness campaign, by General U. S. Grant. 

17. The grand strategy of the last year, by General W. T. Sher- 

man. 

18. The struggle for Atlanta, by General O. O. Howard. 

19. The defense of Atlanta, by General John B. Hood. 

.20. Up and down the Shenandoah, by Generals John D. Im- 
boden, Franz Sigel, Jubal A. Early, Wesley Merritt, and 
others. 

21. Cruise and combats of the Alabama, by Captain John M. 

Kell. 

22. The duel between the Alabama and Kearsarge, by John M. 

Browne. 



432 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XV 

23. Sherman's march through the Confederacy, by Generals O. 

O. Howard, Henry W. Slocum, Wade Hampton, and 
others. 

24. The fall of Richmond, by General Horace Porter. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 

3Iotw0on'£ #&mmi0tratton. 

Republican : 1865-1869. 

156. Cost of the War. At the time of Lee's surren- 
der, the Federal government had more than a million 
men under arms;- in less than six months they had all 
gone home to their families and their business, except 
the little nucleus of 50,000 men constituting our regular 
army. 1 No shameful executions for treason were allowed 
to sully the glorious triumph of the United States. The 
captured Confederate prisoners were set free on parole, 
— about 175,000 in all. The war had proved that our 
Federal Union is indestructible, and it had rid it of the 
curse of slavery. This doubly glorious result had cost 
the country perhaps a million lives, besides wealth 
difficult to estimate, and it left a national debt of nearly 
three thousand million dollars, besides something in- 
finitely worse, a depreciated paper currency. 

157. The Era of Reconstruction. The assassin's pis- 
tol deprived the southerners of their kindest and most 
powerful friend. President Johnson's views about re- 
constructing the Union seem to have been much like 
Lincoln's, but Johnson was wanting in tact and discre- 
tion and had little influence with Congress. 

1 The regular army afterward was reduced to 25,000 men, which had 
been its old number before the war. 



434 



THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 



Loyal state governments had been formed in Tennes- 
see, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Virginia. Johnson recog- 
nized them, and authorized the other states to call con- 
ventions to form loyal governments. A thirteenth 
The thir- amendment had just been added to the Con- 
teenth stitution, abolishing slavery wherever it still 

amend- . . 

ment, existed throughout the Union. Johnson s state 

conventions ratified this amendment, repealed 
the ordinances of secession, and repudiated the Con- 
federate war debt. Then, according to his view of the 
case, the seceded states were entitled to be recognized 
as states in the Union with full powers. 

Congress, however, thought that further guarantees 
were necessary. It created the Freedmen's Bureau, for 
Further the protection of emancipated slaves and also 
guarantees. £ p 00r w hit eS- it passed a Civil Rights bill, 
guaranteeing to negroes rights of citizenship. It de- 
manded that every candidate for office in the southern 
states must be able to swear that he had not taken part 
in secession; this was called the "ironclad oath." A 
fourteenth amendment was proposed, the effect of which 
would be to deprive any state of representation for its 
negro population unless its negroes should be allowed to 
vote. 

Under such conditions, eight of the eleven states — 
all except Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas — were " re- 
constructed " and allowed to resume their places in the 
Union. The governments formed in these eight states 
were neither satisfactory to their people nor likely to 
endure. The ironclad oath kept nearly all respectable 
people out of office, since nearly all such had taken part 
in the war, and a swarm of greedy northern adventurers, 
known as " carpet-baggers," settled down upon the 
southern states and set up governments supported 



§157- 



RECENT EVENTS. 1S65-1S9S. 



435 



largely by negro votes. To preserve order, a small 
Federal force was still maintained, and the unpopular 
carpet-bag governments looked to it for protection. 

Nearly all the measures of Congress were passed over 
the president's veto, and feelings grew so bit- 
ter that a Tenure of Office bill was passed, for- mentof the 
bidding the president to remove any civil office pre 
holder without the consent of the Senate. Infraction 
of this law by the presi- 
dent was to be a high 
misdemeanor. In spite 
of this, the angry presi- 
dent undertook to defy 
the Senate by removing 
Edwin Stanton, secre- 
tary of war, whom he es- 
pecially disliked. Then 
the House of Represent- 
atives impeached the 
president before the Sen- 
ate for high crimes and 
misdemeanors. If found 
guilty, he would be incapable of holding office, and 
would therefore cease to be president ; and in that case, 
Benjamin Wade, president of the Senate, would have 
taken his place. Chief Justice Chase presided over the 
trial, and a two thirds vote was necessary for conviction. 
When the vote was taken, May 16, 1868, it stood 35 for 
conviction and 19 for acquittal. The president was 
therefore saved by one vote. Of those who voted for 
acquittal, seven were Republicans. 

During our Civil War, a French army had been sent 
to Mexico by Napoleon III., regardless of our protests, 

1 From Savage's Life of Andrew Johnson. 




ANDREW JOHNSON. 1 



436 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

and an imperial government had been set up there, with 
Maximilian, one of the Austrian archdukes, for 
French in emperor. After our war was ended, our gov- 
ernment said things to Napoleon III. which 
caused him to withdraw his troops. Then the unfortu- 
nate Maximilian was soon dethroned, and in June, 1867, 
he was shot. 

In the year 1866 permanent telegraphic communica- 
tion between Europe and America was established by 
a submerged cable stretching from Ireland to 
cable; Newfoundland. In October, 1867, the vast 
territory of Alaska — valuable for furs, fish- 
eries, timber, and, to some extent, for metals — was 
bought from Russia for about $7,000,000. 

Next year the Republicans nominated General Grant 
' , for President, and the Democrats nominated 

The elec- 
tion of Horatio Seymour, who had been governor of 

New York. All the states voted except Vir- 
ginia, Mississippi, and Texas. Seymour had 80 electoral 
votes, Grant had 214, and was elected. 



Grant's jl$&mmtetratton& 

Republican : 1869-1877. 

158. The Progress of the Country. The census re- 
ports of 1870 showed that, in spite of the war, the coun- 
try had been rapidly increasing in population and wealth. 
The population had reached 38,000,000 (not much more 
than half of the number in 1895), and manufactures had 
doubled in value since the election of Lincoln. The 
year 1869 saw the completion of the Union Pacific rail- 
road, linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans with a line 
of continuous rail, so that President Grant might have 
travelled from New York to San Francisco in just the 



§§ i5 8 > »59- 



RECENT EVENTS. 1865-189S. 



437 



same time (one week) that it took President Washington 
to travel from New York to Boston. 

After the Civil War, there was a general improvement 
in educational methods and in schools. Americans be- 
came more interested in foreign countries ; there was 
more travelling ; more and better books were read. 
More attention was paid to music and the fine arts. 
Literature reached a higher level than ever. Longfel- 
low, Whittier, Emerson, and Holmes were at our great 
the height of their powers. James Russell wnters - 
Lowell, whose Biglow Papers, written during the Mexi- 
can War and the Civil 
War, are probably the 
greatest political poems 
in existence, now filled 
the measure of his fame 
by writing series after 
series of masterly essays 
in criticism. Among 
American writers of his- 
tory, the two greatest 
names are John Lothrop 
Motley and Francis Park- 
man. Of Motley's noble 
work on the Netherlands, the first volumes were pub- 
lished in the times of President Buchanan, the last ap- 
peared in the times of President Grant ; and, in these 
latter days, Parkman was in the full tide of work upon 
his great history of France and England in North Amer- 
ica, two volumes of which had lately appeared. 

159. The Treaty of Washington. The most impor- 
tant political event of Grant's administration was the 
settlement of the difficulties which had grown out of 
the remissness of Great Britain in allowing Confederate 




JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 



438 

cruisers to sail from her ports. The United States 
claimed damages, and, as the Alabama was the most 
famous of the cruisers, these claims for damages were 
often known as the "Alabama claims." The feeling on 
the subject was at times almost warlike. But by a 
treaty arranged at Washington,' Great Britain and the 




FRANCIS PARKMAN. 



JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY. 



The Ala 

bama 

claims. 



United States agreed to submit the matter to arbitra- 
tion. An impartial board of arbitrators met at 
Geneva, in Switzerland, and, after hearing the 
case, awarded $15,500,000 damages to the 
United States. At the same time, a question relating 
to the boundary between the United States and British 
Columbia was referred to the Emperor of Germany and 
settled by him. Thus did England and America set 
the world an example, which it is to be hoped will be 
extensively followed, of settling grave international dis- 
putes without fighting. 

Another event of this time, which circumstances 
might invest with international importance, was the 



§§ i 5 9, i6o. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 439 

acknowledgment, by Germany and England, of the right 
of expatriation ; that is, the right of a citizen Expatria . 
to abandon his own country and become a citi- tion - 
zen of another. It was formerly held that this could 
not be done ; it was held, for instance, that an English- 
man might dwell for years in the United States, with- 
out any intention of returning to England, and still he 
would owe allegiance to England. The British govern- 
ment had acted upon this theory in the Revolutionary 
War and the war of 1812, when it seized Englishmen 
found on board American ships. The question was 
sometimes important in the case of an emigrant from 
Germany to America returning to his fatherland for 
a visit. Was such a man a German or an American ? 
Could a German government draft him for service in 
the German army ? The United States government 
has always insisted upon the right of expatriation. In 
1868, a treaty was made with Germany, in which that 
nation acknowledged the right. Two years afterwards 
England admitted it, and the right of expatriation is 
coming to be generally established. 

160. The Fifteenth Amendment. In 18 70 was 
adopted the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution, 
which provides that "the right of the citizens of the 
United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged 
by the United States or any state on account of race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude." This guaran- 
teed to all adult negroes the right of voting. 

The carpet-bag governments at the South, supported 
by Federal troops, were the cause of much 
trouble and ill-feeling. The southern people, baggov- 
already impoverished by the combined afflic- 
tions of war, blockade, and paper currency, were now 
still further burdened with taxes assessed by negroes 



440 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

and northern adventurers. Attempts to influence elec- 
tions illegally were frequent. Bands of armed men be- 
longing to an organization known as the "Ku Klux 
Klan " sought to intimidate negroes, and sometimes 
committed deeds of violence. On the other hand, boards 
of canvassers were appointed for determining the results 
of disputed elections by manipulating the figures in 
counting the votes. These were called " Returning 
Boards." There were several instances in which the 
peace of a state was threatened by the presence of two 
rival governors and two rival legislatures, each fulmi- 
nating against the other. But as by degrees the iron- 
clad oath was relaxed, and the better class of southern 
citizens came back into power, the condition of affairs 
improved. 1 

161. The Election of 1872. Since President Jack- 
son's time, the number of officers in the civil service 
_. ., had enormously increased, and the abuses in- 

Ovil ser- J 

vice re- separable from the spoils system had increased 

form. . r r . J _ ' 

in even greater proportion. 1 here now went 
up a cry for reform in the civil service, and the discon- 
tent, as is always the case, served to weaken the politi- 
cal party actually in power. In May, 1872, a body of 
" Liberal Republicans," favoring stringent civil service 
reform and the removal of Federal troops from the south, 
held a convention for nominating a candidate for the 
presidency. It was intended to present a candidate 
whom the Democrats could heartily support, and it was 
generally believed that the person would be Charles 
Francis Adams (son of President John Quincy Adams), 

1 On Christmas, 1868, full amnesty was proclaimed for political offences 
connected with the rebellion of the southern states. In May, 1872, the 
Amnesty act removed political disability from all southerners except 
about 350 persons who had held high positions under the Confederacy. 



§§ i6i, 162. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1S9S. 441 

who had won high distinction as minister to Great Bri- 
tain during the Civil War. But the convention nomi- 
nated Horace Greeley, founder and editor of the New 
York "Tribune." The Democrats had already so set 
their hearts upon an alliance with the Liberal Republi- 
cans that they accepted this nomination. But Greeley's 
life-long hostility to the Democrats gave to his appear- 
ance as their presidential candidate a ludicrous air. In 
this election all the southern states took part. Of the 
366 electoral votes, Grant obtained 286, and was elected. 
Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast, and 
the 80 minority votes were scattered. 

162. The Panic of 1873, etc. Again, as in 1837, 
rapid westward growth and railroad building had de- 
veloped an excessive amount of speculation, which was 
followed by a commercial crisis with frequent and dis- 
astrous failures in business. The distress was greatly 
aggravated by the vicious paper currency, which had 
produced an extreme inflation of prices. In 1867.. a 
barrel of flour in Boston cost $22.50, and a ton of hard 
coal $14. At such times many people are apt to be 
haunted by a vague idea that more money is needed, — 
without regard to its intrinsic value, — and so they try 
to cure the evils of inflation by more inflation. After 
the panic of 1873, a bill for swelling the volume of the 
currency by a further issue of paper passed both houses 
of Congress, but President Grant vetoed it and thereby 
established a fresh claim upon the gratitude of the 
American people. 

In spite of the panic, the effects of which endured 
several years, the Centennial Exhibition, or World's 
Fair, at Philadelphia, in 1876, was a great success. The 
series of centennial anniversaries, beginning with the 
anniversary of Lexington, in 1875, deserve mention as 



442 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

the stimulus to a new and deeper general interest in 
the study of American history. 

The progress of westward expansion has always been 
attended by trouble with the native tribes. Under 
Indian Grant's presidency, there was a war with the 
wars. Modocs and another with the Sioux. It was 

in the latter war, in June, 1876, that the brave General 
Custer and his troops were encompassed by overwhelm- 
ing numbers of Indians, and not one escaped alive. 

In spite of such troubles, President Grant's general 
policy toward the red men was highly to the credit of 
his administration, and was quite in harmony with his 
humane and kindly nature. Remembering the admirable 
policy of William Penn, he entrusted the nomination 
of Indian agents to members of the Society of Friends, 
and the questions connected with the just treatment 
of Indians were set forth in such wise as to awaken 
general interest. The discussion led to the establish- 
ment of an Indian Rights Association, for protecting 
the red men. 

163. Some Scandals. During the presidential cam- 
paign of 1872, the Democrats brought charges of bribery 
Credit against sundry members of Congress and hold- 
Mobiiier. ers f high public offices. The Credit Mo- 
bilier 1 was a corporation chartered by the state of 
Pennsylvania and reorganized in 1864 for the purpose 
of enabling the shareholders of the Union Pacific Rail- 
way, and other persons connected with them, to reap 
extraordinary profits. The accusation against the per- 
sons above mentioned was that they had accepted pres- 
ents of stock in the Credit Mobilier in exchange for 
political influence in favor of the Union Pacific. An 

1 The name is French, and means credit on personal property. It was 
copied from the name of a corporation established in France in 1852. 



§§ 163, 164. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 443 

investigation resulted in the formal censure of two mem- 
bers of Congress. 

The salaries of public officers in the United States 
have always been very small as compared with the usage 
in other great nations. In March, 1873, Congress raised 
the salary of the president from $25,000 to $50,000, 
that of the chief justice from $8500 to $10,500, those 
of the vice-president, associate justices, cabinet officers, 
and speaker of the House of Representatives, from 
$8000 to $10,000, and those of senators and The Sal 
representatives from $5000 to $7500. By Grab - 
another act, Congress made the change in the salaries 
of its own members date back to 1871. This last act, 
which was called the "Salary Grab," aroused such gen- 
eral indignation that it was repealed ; several members 
of Congress refused on principle to accept the back pay. 
The next year all the salaries were reduced to their 
former figures, except those of the president and justices. 

In the course of the year 1872 a combination of dis- 
tillers and revenue officers was formed in St. Louis, for 
the purpose of defrauding the government 
by keeping back part of the internal revenue whiskey 
tax on whiskey and other distilled liquors. In 
the course Of the next two years, this nefarious business 
spread far and wide, with branches in several large 
cities. In 1875 the affair was brought to light, more 
than 200 persons were indicted, and it was proved that 
within the past year the stealings had amounted to nearly 
$2,000,000. 

164. Election of 1876. The Liberal Republicans 
were by this time still further alienated from the great 
body of the party, and the experience of 1872 led such 
persons to vote with the Democrats rather than try 
again the experiment of an independent nomination. 



444 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

This was made easier for them by the fact that the Dem- 
ocrats nominated a candidate whose name was identified 
with efforts toward reform, Samuel Jones Tilden, who 
had been governor of New York. The Republicans 
nominated Rutherford Birchard Hayes, of Ohio, — an 
excellent choice. 

As the election returns first came in, there seemed 
to be no doubt that Tilden was elected. But in three 
of the southern states, carpet-bag governments still re- 
mained, and double returns were sent in, both for state 
officers and for presidential electors. These three states 
were South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. It was 
observed that if all three of these states should be 
counted as Republican, it would make the total vote for 
Hayes 185, against 184 for Tilden. The manager of 
the Republican canvass, Zachariah Chandler, claimed 
them all. The Democrats denied the claim. The ques- 
tion was hard to settle, because the Senate was Repub- 
lican and the House of Representatives Democratic, and, 
therefore, the two houses could not agree upon a method 
of counting the vote. In the case of each state sending 
double returns, it was necessary for the two houses to 
agree which return to accept, but on this they could 
never agree. There was a possibility of civil war in all 
this, and people grew anxious. 

Besides the three carpet-bag states, there was one 
northern state that sent in double returns. In one re- 
turn sent from Oregon the state's three votes were all 
Republican ; in the other return two were Republican 
and one Democratic. If the latter return were accepted 
it would make Tilden's vote 185, and Hayes's only 184 
even with all the three carpet-bag states. 

Congress decided that in counting the votes, each 
disputed case should be referred to an Electoral Com- 



§§ if'4, 165. 



RECENT EVENTS. 1865-189S. 



445 



mission, consisting of five senators, five representatives, 
and five judges of the Supreme Court. There must be 
an odd number, to avoid a tie. Care was taken to ap- 
point seven Democrats and seven Republicans, while 
it was supposed that the fifteenth would be a judge — 
David Davis, of Illinois — who was known to be very 
independent of party. But it happened that Davis re- 
signed, and the fifteenth place fell to a Republican judge. 
Thus every disputed case was referred to a tribunal con- 
sisting of eight Republicans and seven Democrats ; and 
every such case was decided by a strict party vote of 
eight to seven. Thus it appeared that Hayes had 185 
votes, and was elected. The final result was not de- 
clared until March 2, only two days before President 
Grant's term expired. 



Hayes's £tomtmstratton. 

Republican : 1877-188/. 

165. Important Measures of Finance. One of the 

first acts of President Hayes was to withdraw all Fed- 
eral troops from the 
South, whereupon the last 
carpet - bag governments 
immediately fell. The ad- 
ministration of President 
Hayes was eminently 
respectable. The chief 
events of the administra- 
tion were two : (1) In 
1 878, the Republican Sen- 
ate and Democratic House 
agreed in passing the 
Bland Silver Bill, provid- 




RUTHERFORD B1RCHARD HAYES. 



446 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI 

ing for the coinage of a silver dollar of 412^ grains, 
„ . making it a legal tender for debts, and order- 

Specie pay- 

ments re- ing such dollars to be coined at a rate not less 
than two millions, nor more than four millions, 
each month. This act was vetoed by President Hayes, 
and Congress, by a two thirds vote, passed it over the 
veto. (2) In 1879, the government, after an interval of 
seventeen years, resumed specie payments ; gold sold at 
par, and coin came back into circulation. 

In 1877, public attention was called more forcibly 
than ever before to contests between workmen and their 
strikes and employers. Certain railroad companies, suff er- 
boycotts. m g f r om the long business depression since 
1873, lowered the wages of their men. Consequently 
the men struck, or refused to work. Furthermore, some 
of the strikers tried to prevent their employers from 
hiring other men in their places, and to this end they 
threatened and persecuted other workmen who were 
ready to be hired. This sort of thing is called boycott- 
ing, from the name of one of its victims in Ireland, a 
Captain Boycott. In several of our large cities there 
were disturbances in 1877, connected with these at- 
tempts at boycotting. The trouble was most serious in 
Pittsburgh, where there were bloody riots, with destruc- 
tion of more than $3,000,000 worth of property. The 
riots were suppressed by troops, but they were only the 
first of a series which were from time to time to occur. 

Election of 1880. The Democrats nominated Gen- 
eral Hancock, mainly because of his brilliant record in 
the Civil War. He obtained 155 electoral votes. The 
Republicans nominated General Garfield, who obtained 
214 votes, and was elected. The vice-president chosen 
with him was Chester Allan Arthur, who had been col- 
lector of the port of New York. 



§ i66. 



RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1? 



447 



SCije 6arfieto;Hrtl)ur #&mim0tratton. 

Republican: 1881-1885. 

166. Civil Service Reform. The new administra- 
tion began with serious troubles regarding the disposal 
of the "offices." Both the senators from New York 
resigned their seats because the president would not 
submit to their dictation, especially in the appointment 
of a collector for the port of New York. Congress had 



-t^^g^s^ 





JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD. 



CHESTER ALLAN ARTHUR. 



been extremely reluctant to cooperate with any sincere 
and efficient scheme of civil service reform. The new 
president was besieged with applicants for office. On 
the 2d of July, the country was startled by the news 
that he had been shot while standing in the railway 
station at Washington. The assassin was a , 

. Assassina- 

worthless wretch, who had failed to obtain tion of 
some paltry office. For many weeks the presi- 
dent lingered between life and death, and finally passed 
away on the 19th of September. 

The chief event of President Arthur's administration 




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§§ 166, 167. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-189S. 449 

was the passage of an act for reforming the civil service. 
It empowered the president to order appointments to be 
made by competitive examination, and it pro- The act to 
vided for a permanent board of commissioners civUser* 116 
to superintend and perfect such a system. The vice - 
act, proposed by Senator Pendleton, of Ohio, a Demo- 
crat, was passed through Congress by majorities irre- 
spective of party, and was set in operation by the 
Republican president. 

167. Prosperity of the South. Industrial exhibi- 
tions at Atlanta in 1881, and at New Orleans in 1884, 
showed that the southern states had greatly gained in 
prosperity by the substitution of free labor for slave 
labor. Just before the Civil War the cotton crop was 
about 5,000,000 bales (averaging 450 lbs. weight) ; at 
the time of the New Orleans exhibition it had increased 
to 8,000,000 bales. This rate of increase was greater 
than the rate at which the colored population of the 
cotton-growing states had increased ; and this fact seems 
to prove that free negroes, working to earn a living, can 
raise more cotton than the same number of slaves. But 
this is not the whole story, for besides this increase of 
cotton, the southern states had come to raise vastly 
greater crops of wheat and Indian corn than before the 
war, besides an immense quantity of early fruits and 
vegetables for northern markets. There had been, 
moreover, a notable development of manufactures, and 
a considerable number of patents for new inventions 
had been issued to southerners, of whom some were 
negroes. While the general condition of the colored 
race was much improved, some individuals were grow- 
ing wealthy; there were a few instances of freedmen 
possessing as much as $100,000. While slavery existed 
it was assumed by many people that free negroes could 



450 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

not be induced to work for a living. Within twenty 
years after slavery had been abolished, it would probably 
have been difficult to find in all the South a person will- 
ing to see it restored. 1 

168. Election of 1884. The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland, who, as mayor of Buffalo, and as 
governor of New York, had been conspicuously identi- 
fied with measures of administrative reform. The Re- 
publicans nominated James Gillespie Blaine, who had 
three times been Speaker of the House of Representa- 
tives, and enjoyed a very widespread personal popularity. 
A certain number of independent Republicans, however, 
believing that the cause of civil service reform would 
not prosper with Blaine, supported Cleveland. Such 
people were nicknamed "Mugwumps." 2 In the elec- 
tion Blaine received 182 electoral votes, Cleveland re- 
ceived 219, and was elected. 

Cletodan&'s? jfirst flsmintetmion. 

Democratic : 1885-1889. 

169. The Tariff Question Prominent Again. The 
principal feature of these four years was the rise of the 

1 I have myself put the question to hundreds of southerners, and have 
never received any other reply than an emphatic expression of thankful- 
ness that the curse of slavery has been removed. 

2 The word Mugwump came from the extinct Massachusetts Indian 
language, as found in Eliot's Indian Bible, meaning "chief." It has 
always remained in local use along some parts of the coast of Massachu- 
setts and Connecticut, with the sense of " a person of importance," also 
" a person who has a high opinion of himself." In the Tippecanoe Log- 
Cabin Songster, a collection of campaign ballads published in 1840, a cer- 
tain Democratic candidate for county commissioner in Illinois was called 
" the great Mugwump." The word was used at least once that year in a 
newspaper editorial ; it appeared in 1872 in the Indianapolis Sentinel, 
and again in the New York Sun, March 23, 1884. When applied to the 
Independents it happened to hit the popular fancy and came at once into 
general use. 



§§ 169, 170. 



RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 



451 



tariff question into prominence. After the great tariff 
contests in the times of Jackson and Tyler, the ques- 
tion was set at rest for a time by the enact- „ r . 

J Various 

ment of the Walker tariff of 1846, which was tariff meas- 
practically a tariff for revenue only. After 
eleven years, the tariff of 1857 made a few changes, 
chiefly in the direction of lower duties. On the eve of 
civil war, March 2, 1861, the Morrill tariff raised duties 
considerably, in the hope of obtaining more revenue. 
During the next three 
years, the tariff was re- 
peatedly revised, and 
duties were made higher 
and higher. No essential 
change occurred after the 
war, until, in Cleveland's 
first administration, it ap- 
peared that there was a 
surplus in the treasury, 
and that the tariff might 
be reduced without harm 
to the revenue. President 
Cleveland made this matter the subject of his message 
to Congress in 1887. A bill, known as the Mills Bill, 1 for 
reducing the duties on imports, was passed by the Demo- 
cratic House, but failed to pass the Republican Senate. 
170. Important Legislation. The two most impor- 
tant acts of this administration related to the regulation 
of the presidential succession and the counting of the 
electoral votes. There are few if any dangers The elec . 
to a nation greater than those that are liable toral count - 
to arise from a disputed succession to the chief execu- 
tive office. Many bloody civil wars have sprung from 

1 From the name of its chief proposer, Roger Quarles Mills, of Texas. 




GROVER CLEVELAND. 



452 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

such a cause. In 1877 it was a serious anxiety from 
which we were relieved by the Electoral Commission ; 
but such an expedient might not succeed another time. 
The Electoral Count Act, of 1887, provides that each 
state shall finally determine any contest arising in it 
with regard to the result of a presidential election. Such 
determination must be made in accordance with some 
law enacted by the state before the election in question, 
and the decision must be reached at least six days before 
the day on which the electors meet. A decision reached 
in this way cannot be reversed by Congress. In the case 
of conflicting returns, Congress must count "the votes of 
the electors whose appointment shall have been certified 
by the Executive of the State, under the seal thereof." 

A somewhat easier but very important question re- 
lated to the succession to the presidency in case of the 
death or disability of both president and vice-president. 
An act of 1791 had provided that in such case the suc- 
cession should devolve first upon the president pro tem- 
pore of the Senate and then upon the speaker 
dential sue- of the House of Representatives, until the dis- 
ability should be removed or a new election be 
held. But supposing a newly elected president to die 
and be succeeded by the vice-president before the as- 
sembling of the newly elected Congress ; then there 
would be no president pro tempore of the Senate and no 
speaker of the House of Representatives, and thus the 
death of one person might cause the presidency to lapse. 
Moreover, the presiding officers of the two houses of 
Congress might be members of the party defeated in 
the last presidential election ; indeed, this is often the 
case. Sound policy and fair dealing require that a vic- 
torious party shall not be turned out because of the 
death of the president and vice-president. Accordingly 



§i 7 o. 



RECENT EVENTS. 1S65-1S98. 



453 




STATUE OF LIBERTY. 1 



an act of 1886 provided that in such an event the suc- 
cession should devolve upon the members of the cabinet 
in the following order : secretary of state, secretary of 

1 The colossal statue of " Liberty enlightening the world,'" which stands 
on a small island in the harbor of New York, was finished and dedicated 
in 1S86. It was presented to the United States by Prance in commemo- 
ration of the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. 
It was designed by Auguste Bartholdi. The statue, made of copper and 
iron, is 151 feet in height to the top of the torch ; and it stands upon a 
granite pedestal 155 feet high. By a stairway inside the figure one can 
ascend to the head, the interior of which is a room capable of holding 
forty persons. At night, when the torch is lighted by electricity, it makes 
a very effective lighthouse. 



454 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVL 

the treasury, secretary of war, attorney-general, post- 
master-general, secretary of the navy, secretary of the 
interior. This would seem to be ample provision against 
a lapse. 

The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 was especially 
designed to prevent railroads passing through 

J n tGrs t3.t6 t t» m 

commerce several states from making unfair discrimina- 

Act . 

tions in charges for freight. The abuse of free 
passes was also prohibited. A commission, consisting 
of five persons, was established to superintend the exe- 
cution of this law. 

The first treaty between the United States and China 
was negotiated in 1844 by Caleb Cushing. It opened five 
Chinese sea-ports to American trade, and provided for 
the protection of Americans in China and their property. 
In 1 868 a treaty was negotiated by Anson Burlingame, 
in which China for the first time officially recognized 
the principles of international law that had grown up 
among western nations. Among the provisions of this 
treaty was one in which the United States promised 
that "the subjects of China shall enjoy the same privi- 
leges, immunities and exemptions in respect to travel 
and residence as may be enjoyed by the citizens and 
subjects of the most favored nation ; " in other words 

Chinamen were to be allowed to come and stay 

Chinese 

immigra- in the United States on just the same terms 
as Irishmen or Germans. By 1880 there were 
about 100,000 Chinese dwelling in the United States, 
mostly on the Pacific coast, where they were regarded 
with strong disfavor. Chinese laborers worked for lower 
wages than white laborers, and therefore tended to sup- 
plant them. It was furthermore observed that there 
was no likelihood of their ever becoming American citi- 
zens and forming a part of one and the same political 



§§170-172. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 455 

community with their white neighbors. A bill for re- 
stricting Chinese immigration had already, in 1879, been 
passed by Congress, but was vetoed by President Hayes. 
In 1880 an agreement was made with the Chinese gov- 
ernment by which immigration into the United States 
was partially restricted. A new treaty was to have been 
made, but China was slow in ratifying it, and in 1888 a 
bill prohibiting the immigration of Chinamen was passed 
by Congress and signed by President Cleveland. Some 
persons held that this act was invalid, as incompatible 
with the treaty of 1868; but the Supreme Court laid 
down the principle that the right to keep foreigners out 
of the country is an attribute of sovereignty which no 
treaty can surrender. 

171. Election of 1888. The Democrats nominated 
Cleveland, who received 168 electoral votes. The Re- 
publicans nominated Benjamin Harrison (grandson of 
the former President Harrison), who received 233 votes, 
and was elected. 

garrison's jatommtetrattom 

Republican : l88g-l8gj. 

172. Principal Events. The administration of Presi- 
dent Harrison witnessed the admission of six new states 
to the Union, viz., the two Dakotas, Wyoming, Montana, 
Idaho, and Washington. The number of stars in the 
American flag was thus raised to forty-four. 

Legislation in Congress related principally to cur- 
rency and the tariff. Upon the currency question each 
party was divided within itself. The end reached was 
the passage of the Sherman Act of 1890, modi- S h er man 
fying the Bland Bill of 1878, in so far as to Act - 
make the purchase of not less than 4J million ounces of 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 



456 

silver bullion each month compulsory. Treasury notes 
were to be issued in payment for this bullion, and these 
notes, which were made a legal tender, were to be re- 
deemable in coin on demand. 

The McKinley tariff of 1890 increased the duties on 
some important articles, while reducing or abolishing 
McKinley the duties on others. At the same time great 
Act and prominence was given to the principle of reci- 
city- procity. It was provided that certain duties 

which either this or previous tariffs had wholly or par- 
tially abolished, such as those on tea, coffee, sugar, 

molasses, and hides, might 
be revived by the presi- 
dent against any countries 
which should impose un- 
fair duties upon any agri- 
cultural products of the 
United States. The occa- 
sion for making use of this 
provision was for the presi- 
dent himself to determine. 
This led, in the course of 
1 89 1 and 1892, to treaties 
of reciprocity with Spain 
and Great Britain (for their possessions in the West 
Indies), also with Germany and Austria-Hungary, with 
Brazil, and with several Spanish American republics. 

In the winter of 1889-90 there was assembled at 

Washington a congress of delegates from the United 

States, Hayti, Brazil, and fourteen independent Spanish 

. American states, for the consideration of ques- 

Pan- A men- 
can Con- tions relating to the improvement of business 

relations between all American countries. 

This was called the Pan-American Congress. 1 Its most 

1 The Greek word Pan means All. Such a meeting was attempted at 




BENJAMIN HARRISON. 



§ 172. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 457 

important step was recommending the permanent adop- 
tion of arbitration for the settlement of all disputes that 
might arise between any nations of North and South 
America. 

It was not long after the Pan-American Congress 
that trouble threatened to break out between the United 
States and Chili. In the course of a brief civil war in 
the latter country there was a riot in the streets of Val- 
paraiso, in which two sailors from a United States war 
ship were killed and others were maltreated. After 
some exchange of words between the two governments, 
the affair was amicably settled. 

The absence of any law for protecting foreign authors 
against the piracy of their writings had long been re- 
marked as a grave defect in the Federal legislation of 
the United States. Without such a law the . 

Interna- 

book of any English author, or the translation tionai 
of any book written in a foreign language, opyng 
might be printed and sold in this country without pay- 
ing anything to the author. Many of our leading pub- 
lishers — be it said to their credit — were led by a sense 
of honor to pay the foreign author the customary roy- 
alty ; in this there was constant risk, since nothing but 
the "courtesy of the trade" prevented others from pub- 
lishing cheap editions of the same book ; the state of 
things was such as to favor dishonest and unscrupulous 
persons at the expense of the author and the honest 
publisher. To remedy these evils, the International 
Copyright Act of 1891 gives to foreign authors, under 
certain conditions, the benefit of copyright in the United 
States. 

A political reform from which excellent results have 

Panama in 1825, but the attendance was very small, and nothing came 
of it. 



458 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

already begun to flow is the adoption by many states 
Ballot °f tne Australian ballot-system, for the pur- 
Reform. p 0se f checking intimidation and bribery at 
elections. The system, so called because it was first 
perfected by our English-speaking cousins in Australia, 




VIEW IN PACIFIC AVENUE, TACOMA.l 

secures complete secrecy of voting. Before the election 
of 1892, the Australian ballot, or some modification of 
it, had been adopted by thirty-seven states. 

173. Election of 1892. A new party, called the 

1 I have given several views in New York, Boston, Chicago, and other 
cities, as they looked long ago, or at the time of their beginnings. By 
way of contrast, I here give this view of a street in Tacoma, the youngest 
of our important cities. Nothing could better illustrate the extraordinary 
rapidity with which some of our new cities spring up. In the centennial 
year, 1876, Tacoma consisted of a saw-mill and huts giving shelter to 
about 300 persons. When I first visited the place, in 1887, the popula- 
tion was said to be 9,000, and it was already calling itself the " City of 
Destiny." The census of 1890 showed a population of 36,000; and it 
was in 1895 more than 50,000. The view is from a photograph taken in 
1892. 



§§ i 7 3, '74- RECENT EVENTS. 1865-189S. 459 

"People's Party" or "Populists," nominated James 
Weaver for the Presidency, and he received 22 electoral 
votes, none of them from states further east than Kan- 
sas. The Republicans nominated Harrison, who re- 
ceived 145 electoral votes. The Democrats nominated 
Cleveland, who received 277 votes, and was elected. In 
the newly elected House of Representatives there was a 
large Democratic majority, and the same party secured 
a slight majority in the Senate. Thus, for the first time 
since the Civil War, the government of the United 
States was Democratic in all three of its branches. 

CUtoelanW ^fconD £tomtru0tratiom 

Democratic: /8gj-l8g/. 

174. Principal Events, During the preceding ad- 
ministration the surplus in the United States treasury 
had been rapidly diminished. At the beginning of 1893 
the gold reserve had reached so low a point that some 
persons began to fear that the treasury might soon be 
obliged to suspend gold payments. There was abun- 
dance of silver in the treasury, but the value of currency 
silver had been for several years declining until and Tariff - 
the gold value of a silver dollar was scarcely fifty cents. 
Yet a silver dollar was by act of Congress a legal tender 
for its full nominal value of one hundred cents. There 
was a fear that if the treasury should suspend its gold 
payments, business transactions would be shifted to a 
silver basis, just as in the Civil War they were shifted 
to a basis of paper notes. The inevitable result of such 
a change would be an inflation of prices and a wide- 
spread financial disturbance. Under these circumstances 
the compulsory purchase of silver by the government 
was a source of great danger. A disastrous commercial 



460 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

depression, attributed chiefly to the above causes, began 
early in 1893, and led President Cleveland to summon 
an extra session of Congress, in which that portion of 
the Sherman Act of 1890 relating to the compulsory 
purchase of silver was repealed. In the next regular 
session, the chief business was the remodelling of the 
tariff. The Wilson tariff, which was finally adopted, re- 
tained the principle of protection, while it reduced the 
duties upon many articles, and in particular put wool 
upon the free list. The president, whose views it fell 
short of meeting, did not sign the bill, but, believing it 
preferable to the McKinley tariff, he allowed it to be- 
come law without his signature. 1 

The catching of seals in Bering Sea is a very impor- 
tant branch of industry, and it has been pursued by so 
many people and with so much avidity as to excite fears 
that the whole race of seals there may be destroyed. 
_. „ . The United States prescribes a limit to the 

The Bering L 

Sea con- number that the Alaska Commercial Company 

trovcrsv 

may catch. But since 1886 many Canadian 
vessels have entered these waters and the destruction of 
seals has greatly increased. In 1 891, these facts afforded 
the occasion for a dispute between the United States 
and Great Britain. Our Government practically claimed 
jurisdiction over Bering Sea, and began seizing Cana- 
dian vessels that were catching seals there. This led 
to a protest from Great Britain, and presently the ques- 
tion was submitted to arbitration. Some very curious 
points of international law were involved. In 1893, the 
arbitrators rejected the claim of the United States to 
sole jurisdiction over the seals in Bering Sea, but they 
laid down for the protection of those animals a set of 

1 See the Constitution of the United States, article I., section vii., 
clause 2. 



§174- RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 461 

rules which British and American seamen are bound 
to obey. This decision once more illustrates the value 
and efficacy of arbitration in international disputes. 

The outbreaks of striking and boycotting, which had 
begun on a large scale in 1877 (§ 165), were continued 
from time to time. Among the most notable „ ., 

Strikes 

disturbances of this sort were those of Chi- andboy- 
cago and St. Louis in 1886, and of Homestead, 
near Pittsburgh, in 1892. Chicago was the scene of an- 
other outbreak in 1894, which was chiefly due to the 
general depression of business. The manufacture of 
Pullman cars was for some time kept up at a loss until 
the company declared itself obliged to reduce the wages 
of its workmen. This led to a strike, which developed 
into riots, with destruction of property. There was an 
attempt to prevent the movement of trains, and this, as 
interfering with the transmission of the mail, brought 
the affair within the purview of the United States 
government. A proclamation from President Cleveland 
made it clear that the government would not allow its 
ordinary functions to be suspended for the benefit of a 
boycott, and presently the disturbances came to an end. 
The admission of Utah to the Union had long been 
delayed on account of the existence of polygamy among 

the Mormons in that territory. In 1882, Con- 

, , , j- 1 • utah - 

gress had passed an act tor the suppression 

of polygamy, and under this act more than a thousand 
Mormons were convicted and sent to prison. The 
usual penalty was a fine of $300, and imprisonment for 
six months. In 1887, Congress passed another act dis- 
incorporating the Mormon church and confiscating the 
greater part of its immense wealth. Congress also dis- 
incorporated the Emigration Company, which managed 
the business of bringing in Mormon converts from 



462 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

abroad. As a consequence of these vigorous measures, 
the Mormon church in 1890 officially forbade polygamous 
marriages. This and other evidences of the cessation 
of the evil were held to have removed the chief objection 
to the admission of Utah as the forty-fifth state in the 
Union, and a bill to that effect was passed in December, 
1893. The state was admitted in January, 1896. 

175. Election of 1896. At the close of Cleveland's 
second administration, as at its beginning, the most im- 
portant question before the country related to the cur- 
rency. The financial depression continued, and among 
its various causes one was the general feeling of un- 
certainty as to the future of the circulating medium. 

The Republicans held their national convention at St. 
Louis, in June, 1896, and declared themselves "opposed 
to the free coinage of silver except by international 
agreement with the leading commercial nations of the 
world." They nominated as their candidate for the 
presidency William McKinley, of Ohio, well known as 
author or sponsor of the McKinley tariff of 1890. 

The Democrats held their national convention at Chi- 
cago, in July, and adopted a platform demanding "the 
free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the 
present legal ratio of 16 to 1 without waiting for the aid 
or consent of any other nation." Another clause de- 
nounced the United States government for " arbitrary 
interference " in suppressing local insurrections ; which 
was understood to refer to the Chicago riots of 1894. 
The Democratic candidate for the presidency was Wil- 
liam Jennings Bryan, of Nebraska. Mr. Bryan received 
also the nomination of the People's party, or Populists. 

A minority of the Democrats, who disapproved of the 
course of their party at Chicago, held a convention at 
Indianapolis, in September, and drew up the platform of 



§§175, I?*- RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 463 

the "National Democrats." With regard to the princi- 
pal question at issue, the platform says, " We insist upon 
the maintenance of the gold standard and of the parity 
therewith of every dollar issued by the government, and 
are firmly opposed to the free and unlimited coinage of 
silver and to the compulsory purchase of silver bullion." 
The National Democrats nominated for the presidency 
John M. Palmer, of Illinois, who had been a distinguished 
Union general in the Civil War, and for the vice-presi- 
dency Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, who had been 
an eminent Confederate general. 

The National Democrats did not expect to do more, 
in the election of 1896, than to maintain an organization 
which might be of service in the future. They obtained 
no electoral votes. Bryan received 176, while McKin- 
ley received 271, and was elected. The Senate, after 
the new elections, contained 46 Republicans and 34 
Democrats, with 5 who called themselves Populists, 3 
Independents, and 2 Silver Men. The new House of 
Representatives contained 202 Republicans and 130 
Democrats, with 21 Populists, 1 Fusionist, and 3 Silver 
Men. Thus the government of the United States was 
now once more Republican in all three of its branches. 

spctolcp's &Dimm0tratton* 

Republican. 

176. Principal Events. The general effect of the 
election of 1896 was to assure people that no immediate 
action would be taken in the direction of a free and un- 
restricted coinage of silver. Down to the beginning of 
1898 there had been no legislation decisively assuring the 
stability of the circulating medium. Other business took 



464 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 




Wheat 
crops. 



WILLIAM MCKINLEY. 



precedence. A new tariff bill was passed in 1897, com- 
monly known as the Dingley tariff, the general effect of 
which was to increase the duties on imports. 

One of the chief causes of the "hard times " had been 

the extremely low price of 
- ^, wheat. In 1894, the crop of 

wheat all over the world was 
enormous ; more wheat was 
raised than was needed, and 
the price fell to about 
49 cents per bushel. 
Many farmers, therefore, who 
relied upon their sales of 
wheat for paying their debts 
and buying sundry necessa- 
ries of life, were disappointed 
and distressed. But in 1897 
it happened that there was a deficient wheat crop in 
other countries, so that there sprang up a brisk foreign 
demand for American wheat ; and this circumstance did 
much to relieve the hard times. 

The boundary line between Venezuela and British 
Guiana had never been satisfactorily adjusted, and in 
1895 certain territorial claims of Great Britain were 
made the occasion of a remonstrance by President Cleve- 
land. The United States claimed the right to interfere, 
on the ground that any territorial increase of British 
Guiana at the expense of Venezuelan territory would be 
an infraction of the Monroe doctrine (§ 117). The affair 
was amicably arranged, and the question between Great 
Arbitration Britain and Venezuela was referred to arbitra- 
Treaty. ^ 1Qn This affair suggested the advisableness 
of having a permanent international court of arbitration 
for the purpose of adjusting any matters of dispute that 



§ 176. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 465 

might arise between the United States and Great Britain. 
After some correspondence between the two govern- 
ments a treaty was drawn up, but in May, 1897, it failed 
to be ratified by the United States Senate. 

In Cuba for more than half a century there had been 
much discontent with the Spanish government. In 1868 
the Cubans rose in rebellion, and there was war for ten 
years, at the end of which time the Spaniards The war in 
promised that there should be a general reform Cuba ' 
of abuses, and the Cubans desisted from fighting. But 
as year after year passed by without the promised re- 
forms, the Cubans grew impatient, and in February, 
1895, war broke out again. The Cubans proclaimed 
their island independent of Spain, and elected a govern- 
ment of their own. At the beginning of 1898, in spite 
of extraordinary efforts in raising troops and money, 
Spain had accomplished nothing toward suppressing the 
rebellion. The year opened with important questions 
confronting President McKinley's administration as to 
the rights and duties of the United States toward the 
belligerents in a conflict carried on so near to our own 
doors. 

The year 1898 is memorable for the union of Brooklyn 
and other suburban cities under the same gov- Greater 
ernment with the city of New York. With its New Yorkl 
total population of 3,350,000 souls, New York is now 
second only to London among the cities of the world. 
topics and questions. 

156. The Cost of the War. 

1. Federal army after the war. 

2. The treatment of Confederate prisoners. 

3. The character of the war. 

4. Two things settled by the war. 

5. The cost in money and lives. 



466 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

157. The Era of Reconstruction. 

1. Johnson's views of reconstruction. 

2. The conditions under which he recognized the restoration 

of the states. 

3. Further guarantees deemed necessary by Congress. 

4. The states reconstructed. 

5. Why their governments proved unsatisfactory. 

6. Why the Tenure of Office bill was passed. 

7. The president's defiance of it. 

8. The response of the House of Representatives. 

9. The consequences in case of the president's conviction. 

10. The trial and its issue. 

11. The French in Mexico. 

12. The purchase of Alaska. 

13. The election of 1868. 

158. The Progress of the Country. 

1. The increase in population. 

2. The Pacific railroad. 

3. Improvement in education. 

4. Great names in literature. 

5. Great names in historical writing. 

159. The Treaty of Washington. 

1. The Alabama claims. 

2. The method of adjusting them. 

3. The award. 

4. The settlement of a boundary line. 

5. The value of the example set under the treaty. 

6. The right of expatriation. 

7. The British theory of this right. 

8. How the German emigrant was interested in the question. 

9. The United States view admitted at last. 

160. The Fifteenth Amendment. 

1. What it provided. 

2. Why the " carpet-bag " governments were disliked. 

3. How armed men influenced elections. 

4. How canvassers determined their results. 

5'. How the peace of a state was often threatened. 
' 6. How affairs began to improve. 

161. The Election of 1872. 

1. The cry for civil service reform. 

2. The aims of the Liberal Republicans. 



Ch. XVI. RECENT EVENTS. 1S65-1898. 467 

3. How Horace Greeley came to be nominated. 

4. The result of the election. 

162. The Panic of 1873. 

1. Some of the causes of this panic. 

2. The condition of the national currency. 

3. Centennial anniversaries. 

4. Indian wars. 

5. The fate of Custer. 

6. Grant's policy towards the red men. 

163. Some Scandals. 

1. Bribery accusations. 

2. Salaries of United States officers. 

3. The salary grab. 

4. The whiskey frauds. 

164. The Election of 1876. 

1. Why many Republicans voted with the Democrats. 

2. Southern states with double returns. 

3. Conflicting claims for their votes. 

4. The difficulty of settling these claims. 

5. A northern state with double returns. 

6. The method adopted to decide these disputed cases. 

7. How the cases were finally decided. 

165. Important Measures of Finance. 

1. The last of the carpet-bag governments. 

2. The Bland Silver bill. 

3. The resumption of specie payments. 

4. Strikes of workmen. 

5. Boycotting. 

6. The Pittsburgh riots. 

7. The election of 1880. 

166. Civil Service Reform. 

1. Troubles about offices. 

2. The president shot. 

3. The act to reform the civil service. 

167. Prosperity of the South. 

1. The industrial exhibitions. 

2. Increase in the cotton crop. 

3. Increase in other crops. 

4. Growth of manufactures. 

5. The condition of the colored race. 

6. The present attitude toward slavery. 



4-68 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

1 68. Election of 1884. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. Mugwumps. 

3. History of the word Mugwump. 

4. Result of the election. 

169. The Tariff Question Prominent Again. 

1. The Walker tariff of 1846. 

2. The tariff of 1857. 

3. The Morrill tariff of 186 1. 

4. Later revisions. 

5. Cleveland's tariff recommendations. 

170. Important Legislation during Cleveland's Adminis- 

tration. 

1. Dangers from a disputed succession to the chief executive 

office. 

2. Settlement of the question of conflicting returns. 

3. The presidential succession as determined by act of 1791. 

4. A contingency not provided for. 

5. A requirement of fair dealing. 

6. The succession as fixed by act of 1886. 

7. The Interstate Commerce Act. 

8. Our relations with China : 

a. The treaty negotiated by Cushing. 

b. The treaty negotiated by Burlingame. 

c. The " most favored nation " provision. 

d. Chinese in the United States in 1880. 

e. Why they were viewed with disfavor. 

f. Measures to restrict immigration. 

171. The Election of 1880. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of the election. 

172. Principal Events of Harrison's Administration. 

1. The admission of new states. 

2. The Sherman act of 1890. 

3. The McKinley Tariff act of 1890. 

4. The principle of reciprocity. 

5. The Pan-American Congress. 

6. Our relations with Chili. 

7. A defect in our dealing with foreign authors. 

8. The remedy adopted. 

9. The Australian ballot system. 



Ch. XVI. RECENT EVENTS. 1S65-1S9S. 469 

173. The Election of 1892. 

1. The presidential nominees. 

2. The result of the election. 

174. Principal Events in Cleveland's Second Adminis- 

tration. 

1. Fear that gold payments might be suspended. 

2. The depression of 1893. 

3. Repeal of the Sherman act of 1890. 

4. Revision of the tariff. 

5. Dispute over the catching of seals. 

6. The settlement of the dispute. 

7. Outbreaks of striking and boycotting. 

8. The Pullman strike of 1894. 

9. Measures for the suppression of polygamy in Utah, 
10. The admission of Utah as a state. 

175. The Election of 1896. 

1. The currency question. 

2. The Republican position. 

3. The Democratic position. 

4. The National Democratic position. 

5. The presidential nominations. 

6. The result of the election. 

176. The Principal Events of McKinley's Administration. 

1. General effect of the election of 1896. 

2. The tariff. 

3. Wheat and " hard times." 

4. The Venezuela boundary question. 

5. International arbitration. 

6. The Cuban rebellion of 1868, and its causes. 

7. The Cuban rebellion of 1895, and its causes. 

8. Cuban questions confronting McKinley's administration. 

9. Greater New York. 

suggestive questions and directions. 

I. Show how the votes of people have affected the course of 
history in the United States. Is it right that an ignorant 
man's vote shall count as much as an intelligent man's 
vote ? That a poor man's vote shall count as much as a 
rich man's ? That a bad man's vote shall count as much as 
a good man's ? What are the objections to extending the 



470 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVI. 

right of suffrage to large masses of ignorant persons ? What 
are the arguments in favor of such suffrage ? 

2. Do differences ever arise between two persons of such a nature 

that, however honest and peaceably disposed such persons 
may be, they cannot be expected to agree ? If so, give illus- 
trations. What is the approved method of settlement in 
such cases? What would be an objectionable mode in such 
cases ? Mention circumstances under which one of the per- 
sons in a difficulty between two might be justified in resort- 
ing to violent measures. What is meant by the doctrine of 
non-resistance as taught by the Friends or Quakers ? Is it 
a desirable principle to put into practice in the relations of 
individuals ? How far would it be wise or expedient to give 
the same answers to the foregoing questions if two peoples 
or nations should be substituted for the two persons ? 

3. What Pacific railroads are there to-day? Why was it thought 

expedient for the United States government to aid in the 
building of the earlier ones ? In what way are they contrib- 
uting to the history of the country ? 

4. What is meant by specie payments ? When were they last sus- 

pended, and why ? When were they resumed again, and 
why? Examine the different kinds of paper money in use 
to see how they read, and in what sort of money they are 
payable. Is a promise to pay money real money ? Is paper 
money real money ? Is the paper money issued by the Con- 
federate states of any value now ? Reason ? What gives 
value to paper money? Why did it take two dollars of 
' paper money, more or less, during the Civil War to buy a 
gold dollar? How did Union victories and defeats affect 
the price in paper currency of a gold dollar? Reason? 
What things are needed to make the use of paper currency 
safe ? What advantages has good paper money over coin ? 
Is a check on a bank money ? May it be as good as money ? 
What is money ? 

5. What is treason ? Mention one or two executions for treason 

recorded in English history. Did England treat the Amer- 
icans as traitors during the Revolution? Why were there 
no executions during the Civil War, or at its close, for trea- 
son? 

6. What were some of the principles recognized by the Union 

armies in the Civil War about the use or destruction of pri- 



Ch. XVI. RECENT EVENTS. 1865-1898. 471 

vate property? When was such property paid for, and when 
not? 

7. Does history indicate diminishing wantonness and barbarity 

in the conduct of war? If so, what are the indications? 
Can war ever be other than something brutal, destructive, 
and deplorable ? Are there any blessings that come to a 
people out of its wars? Is it any worse for two persons to 
fight than for two families, two tribes, two factions or par- 
ties, or two nations, to do the same ? 

8. How do you explain the fact that both parties in the Civil 

War showed extraordinary devotion to their respective 
causes, made extraordinary sacrifices for them, invoked the 
same divine aid for their respective armies, and fought each 
other with equal sincerity and fervor? 

9. Why did the United States protest against the French occu- 

pation of Mexico during the Civil War? What important 
doctrine or policy of the United States was disregarded in 
this occupation ? Why did the French withdraw at the 
close of the war? 

10. Give an account of the Confederate cruiser Alabama. What 

direct injury did she do to our commerce ? What indirect 
injury? Why was it wrong for Great Britain to let Confed- 
erate cruisers sail from her ports ? What did Great Britain 
have to pay for letting them do so ? Tell how she came to 
make such a payment without a protest. Did the payment 
cover indirect damages? What would have been Great 
Britain's attitude toward such claims had they been made 
half a century earlier? 

11. Are you acquainted with any veteran of the war on either side? 

Ask him what he thinks of camp life, of marching, of facing 
the enemy in battle, of the scenes of the battlefield, and of 
war in general, as a means of settling difficulties. Ask him 
if he was conscious of a personal hostility to men who 
fought against him. Report to the class some interesting 
things learned in such talks. 

12. Show how the history of the United States has been shaped 

somewhat by its geography. Consider, for example, how 
the sites of cities have been determined by bays, rivers, and 
ease of communication with extensive regions; how the pro- 
ductions of the various states are dependent on soil, climate, 
and natural resources, and how the population is influenced 



472 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVI. 



by those productions ; how some natural features have fa- 
vored development in population and business, while others 
have hindered it ; how the course of campaigns in war has 
been shaped by mountains, valleys, and waterways, etc., etc. 

13. What is meant by a graphic representation of a series of facts? 

Suppose the population of the country in 1790 is repre- 
sented by an area one inch square ; represent on the same 
scale the population for 1890. Suggest other methods of 
representing to the eye these two populations. Suppose the 
entire population of the country in 1 890 is represented by a 
circle of any diameter ; represent by a sector of this circle 
the colored population. Suggest other ways of presenting 
these facts to the eye. How may the growth of the country 
as indicated by successive censuses be revealed by a broken 
line ? 

14. Make out a table of presidents in accordance with the follow- 

ing plan : 



NAMES. 


ELECTED BY WHOM. 


DATES OF SERVICE. 


FROM WHAT STATE. 











What presidents have died in office ? What vice-presidents 
have succeeded to the presidency ? 

In connection with each administration, answer the follow- 
ing questions : 

a. What general policy was the president elected to en- 

force ? 

b. Who was the defeated candidate? 

c. What were the principal events of the administration? 
15. Answer questions like the following about your own state: 

a. By whom was it first settled ? 

b. By what nation was the territory originally claimed? 

c. Give a few prominent facts in its history. 

d. Show something about the nature and rapidity of its 

development. 

e. What are its chief industries? 

f. What books would you consult to ascertain the history of 

your state in detail ? 



CHAPTER XVII. 

SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 

177. Material Progress. From the beginning of the 
first permanent English settlement in America, at 
Jamestown, in 1607 (§ 34), to the second inauguration 
of President Cleveland, there was an interval The middle 
of 286 years. If we divide that period in the Am^an 
middle, it gives us the year 1750 as the half- histor y- 
way station in the history of the American people. 
There were just as many years of continuous American 
history before 1750 as there have been since that date. 
It is well to remember this fact and avoid the habit of 
alluding to the time of Washington's presidency as 
"early American history." 1 In order to understand 
the character of our people and their conduct at impor- 
tant crises, it is necessary to study with care the earliest 
circumstances of their life in this country to which they 
have been transplanted. 

Probably most people fail to realize distinctly that the 
date 1750 is only half-way back to the beginning of our 
history. An era somewhat removed from us seems to 
shrink in magnitude, as a mountain does when we travel 
away from it. But besides this, it is true that the quan- 
tity of American history since 1750 is much greater 
than before that date ; the number of things to tell has 
increased. It may take longer to describe the earlier 
time, for a period removed from us is likely to need 
1 See above, p. 160. 



474 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVII. 



more explanation than a period close to us ; but the 
later time is unquestionably richer in details. The 
nation has been rapidly growing in size and complex- 
ity ; interests are wider and more varied. 

In 1750, a line drawn parallel to the Atlantic coast 
and through the spot where the city of Harrisburg now 
stands would have been quite far enough west to mark 
the frontier. East of such a line dwelt the American 
people, about 1,100,000 in number. At the 
memorable date of 1689 the total population 
had been about 200,000. The first general census in 
1790 showed a population of 3,929,214; by 1890 it had 
grown to 62,622,250. The average rate of increase per 
decade has been over 30 per cent. ; if that rate were 
to continue it would result in a population of about 
300,000,000 by the year 1950, — a period which many 
young people now at school will live to see. 

The centre of population is a point through which, if 
you draw an east-and-west line, there are as many peo- 



Popula- 
tion. 




CENTRE OF POPULATION. 



pie to the north as to the south of it ; and if you draw a 
centre of north-and-south line, there are as many people 
population, to the east as to the west of it. In 1790, the 
centre of population of the United States lay about 



§ 177. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 475 

23 miles east of Baltimore ; the census of 1890 found it 
in the southern part of Indiana. It will continue to 
move westward for some time, but not indefinitely, for 
the Pacific Ocean sets a limit to our westward expansion. 

This rapid increase of population has not been peculiar 
to the United States. The population of nearly every 
country in Europe has increased more since 1790 than 
it had increased for several centuries before. The popu- 
lation of England, for example, was in Queen Eliza- 
beth's time (1 558-1603) about 5,000,000 ; in 1790 it was 
scarcely 9,000,000 ; in 1890 it was 27,482,104. Nowhere 
else, however, has the increase been so great as in the 
United States. 

One cause of the rapid increase of population in the 
present century has been the diminution of warfare 
(§ 115) and of disease. Another powerful cause has been 
the easy distribution of surplus products by means of 
railroads and steamboats. Regions formerly incapable 
of supplying men's needs are now well supplied from 
other regions. Another cause, by which our country 
has gained at the expense of Europe, has been immigra- 
immigration. In the decade ending in 1890, naturaifza- 
our total increase was 12,466,467, and of this tion - 
number 5,246,613 were immigrants arriving within the 
decade, chiefly from European countries. Our law of 
naturalization makes it easy for immigrants to acquire 
citizenship. The act of 1802, which is still in force, 
allows naturalization upon proof of five years' residence 
in the United States and of one in the state ; good 
character must be certified, an oath of allegiance taken, 
and prior allegiance renounced. 

We have already remarked upon the importance of 
steamboats (§ 118) and railroads (§ 123) in assisting 
the westward movement of our population and building 



476 THE FEDERAL UNtON. Ch. XVil. 

up new states. A further effect of swift communi- 
Someef- cation has been to develop immense farms 
qufcVtran- anc * rancnes m tne western states for the sup- 
sit- ply of markets in the East and in Europe. It 
is this also which makes it possible to furnish whole- 
some fresh fruits and succulent vegetables at moderate 
prices to Northern tables even in midwinter (§ 167). 
The increased size of farms has made labor-saving 
machinery a necessity, so that ploughing, harrowing, 
threshing, and other rural operations formerly carried 
on by hand, are now performed by ingenious machines. 
Indoor domestic occupations are also largely aided by 
small machines, of which the most widely used and 
most important are probably the sewing-machine, in- 
vented in 1845 by Elias Howe, and the typewriter, 

which in its present form dates from 1873. 

With machinery we now make all sorts of 
things, from gold watches to morocco slippers, and 
patents innumerable are yearly issued for mechanical 
devices for economizing time and effort. In such ways 
the production of the necessaries of life has been greatly 
cheapened, and while many capitalists have amassed 
wealth, the comfort of the working classes has been to 
a remarkable degree enhanced. 

Without the railroad and the telegraph, the move- 
ments of large bodies of men on the scale required in 
our Civil War would have been impossible, and the 
cause of the secessionists might have been successful. 
Without those two wonderful inventions, it is more than 
doubtful if a close Federal Union extending from ocean 
to ocean could have been established or maintained. 
Few if any of the great men who framed our Constitu- 
tion looked forward to such a grand and durable result. 
Our forefathers builded better than they knew. 



§177- SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. • 477 

One effect of the telegraph has been to make this 
vast country, for business purposes, more compact and 
snug than so little a state as Rhode Island a century 
ago. This effect has been enhanced by the „ , 

J , Telegraph 

numerous ocean cables that have gone into and postal 
operation within the last thirty years. A mer- s>s 
chant in Milwaukee can watch from day to day sales 
and prices in Bombay or Yokohama and act accord- 
ingly. Yet the wonder of the telegraph should not 
blind us to the importance of the development of our 
postal system. In 1729, in the central state of New 
Jersey, lying between two principal cities only ninety 
miles apart, the mail, carried on horseback, was deliv- 
ered once a week in summer and once a fortnight in 
winter. It was considered a great reform when, in 1754, 
Benjamin Franklin, postmaster-general of the colonies, 
caused the mail to be delivered three times a week. In 
1792, the postage on a letter from Boston to New York 
was 17 cents, to Richmond in Virginia, 25 cents; there 
were then about 75 post-offices in the United States 
and 1,900 miles of post-road open, and in a year about 
2,000,000 letters and papers were carried. In 1845, a 
series of reforms began ; the letter-rate was reduced to 
5 cents per half-ounce for distances under 300 miles, 
and 10 cents for greater distances; in 1851, it was fur- 
ther reduced to 3 cents for distances under 3,000 miles, 
and 6 cents for greater distances. In 1863, the rate was 
made uniform at 3 cents for all distances. In 1883-85, 
it was reduced to 2 cents per ounce. When the first 
changes were being made, in 1845, some conservative 
gentleman complained that " before long all the servant- 
girls would be writing letters ! " That worthy person 
might have learned something if he had lived till the 
year ending June 30, 1893, which saw 10,236,314,985 



478 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII. 

pieces of mail-matter carried over 1,116 railway lines 
and 36 steamboat lines, aggregating 453,833 miles in 
length, and delivered from 68,403 post-offices. In 1885, 
a valuable improvement was made in the arrangement 
for securing immediate special delivery by an extra fee 
of 10 cents ; the number of such special deliveries for 
1893 was 3,375,693. In international postal arrange- 
ments similar improvement has been made. At the 
time of our Civil War the letter-rate to France was 15 
cents per quarter -ounce, and economy was sought in 
Postal the use of wretchedly thin paper. Germany 
Union. i e( j th e wav j n establishing the postal union, 
which went into effect July 1, 1875, and has since come 
to include nearly all countries in the world except China. 
Throughout the postal union there is a uniform letter- 
rate of 5 cents per half-ounce. The development of the 
system of parcels delivery by express companies has 
been scarcely less notable and important than that of 
the post-office. 

In recent years both the steam railway and the tele- 
graph have been curiously supplemented by inventions 
that tend to encroach somewhat upon their respective 
provinces. The electric telephone, invented 
1 ' by Alexander Graham Bell, came first into 
use in 1877, and by 1893 there were over 300,000 miles 
of telephone wire in operation in the United States. 
This marvellous invention already enables conversation 
to be carried on between New York and Chicago with 
ease, and we recognize the familiar tones of a friend's 
voice a thousand miles away ! Electricity, which has 
been compelled to perform this wonder, has also fur- 
Eiectric nished the supplement to the steam railway. 
railway. About the middle of this century street cars 
drawn by horses were coming into use in our principal 



§ i77. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 479 

cities. In San Francisco cable cars were introduced in 
1873 to overcome the difficult grades of that hilly city. 
In 1888, the first electric railway went into operation in 
Richmond, Va., and by 1894 there were in the United 
States more than 9,000 miles of track in use for this 
purpose. It is not improbable that before many years 
electricity may quite supersede steam as the motive 
power for railways. 

In 1809, Pall Mall, one of the streets of London, 
began to be lighted with gas ; and soon after . . 
1820 gas companies were formed in New York 
and Boston. By the middle of the century the use of 
gas was finding its way into small towns of five or six 
thousand inhabitants. Since 1879 the use °f electricity 
for lighting streets and houses has been increasing with 
great rapidity. 

Before 1825 close stoves were not much used in the 
United States, except in public buildings. Open grates 
and fireplaces, or open Franklin stoves, burning wooden 
logs or soft coal, were used for warming private 
houses. After 1835 anthracite stoves came 
rapidly into use, both for heating rooms and for cook- 
ing ; and these were developed into various forms of 
furnace and range. Steam radiators afterward super- 
seded hot-air furnaces in many places, especially in large 
buildings. In 1893, electric radiators were coming into 
use ; and in all probability electricity will soon be the 
agent most generally employed for warming as well as 
for lighting. 

With the rapid increase of population there has been 
a marked tendency toward concentration in cities. In 
1790, out of each 100 persons 3 lived in cities and 97 
in the open country or in small villages; in 1840, the 
ratio of urban to rural population was 9 to 91 ; in 1890 



480 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII. 

it was 29 to 71. The same tendency to flock into cities 
is observable in Europe, and one efficient 
rural popu- cause has doubtless been the development of 
means of locomotion, especially of railroads, 
since about 1830. At certain points along lines of rail- 
road, especially at points of intersection, or at places 
of junction between rail and water transit, there is a 
tendency for towns to swell into great cities, because it 
is especially easy to bring the necessaries and luxuries 
of life to such points ; whereas places off the road come 
to seem comfortless and lonesome. The growth of 
manufactures and commerce increases this tendency. 
It is not improbable that the further development of 
transit, especially in the form of local electric railways, 
may somewhat alter the case, by carrying into the coun- 
try the comforts and conveniences of the city. The 
improvements of carriage roads will have the same ten- 
dency ; and such improvement is likely to be one result 
of the rapidly increasing use of bicycles since 1890. 
Nothing is such a drawback upon rural comfort as bad 
roads. 

Among recent incidents of progress we must not omit 
the establishment of the Weather Bureau. It was first 
weather suggested in 18 17 by Josiah Meigs, who began 
Bureau. a t the Land Office registering changes of 
weather. For many years observations were kept up 
at the various army posts and along the Great Lakes, 
and in 1836 the Smithsonian Institution began to make 
predictions. In 1870, Congress established the Weather 
Bureau at Washington as the centre for comparing tele- 
graphic reports from all the posts of observation in the 
United States. The Weather Bureau was a branch of 
the war department until 1891, when it was transferred 
to the department of agriculture. 



§178. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 48 1 

178. Progress in Culture. The American system of 
public schools, begun by the first generation of settlers 
in New Netherland * (§ 59) and New England, p u bHc 
has been extended, in varying degrees of com- l^ ols 
pleteness, all over the United States. Its ex- libraries, 
cellent influence upon public morals and orderliness has 
often been remarked. It has produced a greater mul- 
titude of readers than any other country has ever seen. 
Of newspapers and periodicals, at least as many are 
published in the United States as in all the rest of the 
world taken together. To satisfy the needs of so many 
readers, public libraries have grown up in many parts of 
the country. In Massachusetts, in 1894, only two and 
one seventh per cent, of the entire population of the 
state dwelt in towns without public libraries. In many 
states small libraries for reference and collateral reading 
are growing up in connection with the public schools. 
In several cities and towns bulletins and reference lists 
with valuable bibliographical information are issued by 
the public library ; and useful aid to teachers and pupils 
is given by the librarian. From the intelligent coopera- 
tion of schools and libraries the utmost good may be 
expected. 

Among the institutions of higher learning a word of 
mention is due to the colleges founded before the Revo- 
lution : Harvard in 1636, William and Mary in TT . 

° ' J Universi- 

1692, Yale in 1701, Princeton in 1746, Colum- ties and 
bia (first called King's) in 1754, Pennsylvania 
(founded by Franklin) in 1755, Brown in 1764, Dart- 
mouth in 1769. Among those founded in the present 
century may be mentioned especially the University of 
Virginia, founded by Jefferson in 18 19; the University 
of Michigan, organized in 1842; Wisconsin, in 1848; the 

1 The first public school in New Amsterdam was established in 1633. 



482 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVIL 

Washington University at St. Louis, in 1857; the Cornell 
University, in 1868 ; Johns Hopkins, at Baltimore, in 
1876, chiefly for post-graduate studies ; Tulane, at New 
Orleans, in 1884; Clark, at Worcester, Mass., in 1889, 
chiefly for original research ; Leland Stanford, Jr., at 
Palo Alto, California, in 1891 ; Chicago University, in 
1892. 1 Of colleges especially for women may be men- 
tioned Vassar, opened in 1865; Smith and Wellesley, 
both in 1875 ; Bryn Mawr, in 1885. 2 In most of the west- 
ern colleges women attend the . same classes with men. 
At Cambridge an association for the higher education of 
women was very quietly started in 1878. The students, 
were to receive the same kind of instruction as the stu- 
dents in Harvard, and from the same instructors, but 
outside of the University. This institution, which grew 
and flourished rapidly, was familiarly known as the 
"Harvard Annex," until in 1894 it was incorporated as 
Radcliffe College. Since the Civil War there has been 
a great increase in the attendance at colleges. At Har- 
vard, in i860, there were about 900 students in all de- 
partments; in 1894, there were more than 3,000 without 
including those of Radcliffe. 

The largest library in the United States is the Library 
of Congress, with about 700,000 volumes ; then follow the 
Boston Public Library, with 600,000 ; the Harvard Uni- 
versity Library, 400,000 ; Chicago University 
Library, 380,000 ; the Yale University Library, 
250,000; the Astor and Mercantile libraries in New 
York, each 250,000; the Sutro Library at San Fran- 

1 These lists make no pretence even to an approach toward complete- 
ness. 

2 To these was added, in 1893, Mount Holyoke College, first opened as 
a seminary in 1837. 



§178. 



SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 



48: 



cisco, 200,000. Among libraries with less than 200,000 
volumes, some are of especial interest from the character 
of their collections ; such are the Lenox Library in New 
York, the Newberry Library at Chicago, the libraries of 
the Boston Athenaeum, the American Antiquarian So- 
ciety at Worcester, the Peabody Institute at Baltimore, 




BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. 



the Wisconsin Historical Society at Madison, the Ban- 
croft collection at San Francisco, and several others. 
The oldest of all is that of Harvard University, which 
was begun in 1638. In 1863 it had reached about 90,000 
volumes, or less than one fourth of its present size ; 
and in like manner the principal growth of all the 
libraries mentioned has been since the Civil War. 
These facts testify to a great and growing interest in 



484 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVII. 



education, from which a fine harvest will doubtless be 
reaped by the rising generation. 1 

The development of museums since the middle of the 
present century has been only less remarkable than that 
of libraries. One of the finest scientific muse- 
ums is that of the Smithsonian Institution at 
Washington. That noble institution, founded by an 
Englishman who had never visited America, has for its 
object "the increase and diffusion of knowledge among 
men," and for half a century it has occupied a foremost 
position in this country for the encouragement which it 

has given to original 
scientific research. 
The Museum of Com- 
parative Zoology, at 
Harvard University, 
was founded in i860 
by the efforts of the 
great naturalist, Louis 
Agassiz ; it is now one 
of the largest and fin- 
est in the world; By 
its side has grown up 
the Museum of Amer- 
ican Archaeology, 
founded by George 
Peabody, extremely 
rich and instructive in its collections. In Professor 
Marsh's collection of fossils at Yale University one may 
read chapters of our earth's history that are nowhere 
else so clearly exhibited. The Field Museum, at Chi- 

1 The three largest libraries in the world are the National, in Paris, 
with 2,600,000 vols. ; the British Museum, in London, 1,700,000 ; the Im- 
perial, in St. Petersburg, 1,100,000. 




LOUIS AGASSIZ. 



§ 178. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 485 

cago, founded in 1893, is already remarkable for many 
of its collections. We should not fail to mention the 
superb Botanical Gardens connected with the Washing- 
ton University at St. Louis ; as also the Astronomical 
Observatories at Harvard University, at Wash- bserv- 
ington, Alleghany, Albany, Chicago, and the Tories. 
new Lick Observatory, near San Jose, California. None 
of these institutions is yet seventy years old ; yet much- 
important original work has been done in them. Until 
about 1850 all our telescopes were made in Europe ; by 
1875 ^ could be said that American opticians make 
the best telescopes in the world, and the most eminent 
name connected with this noble advancement is that of 
Alvan Clark. 

Americans have always done excellent work in as- 
tronomy, from the days of David Rittenhouse, Astron- 
who was a friend of George Washington, to omy " 
the two Bonds in the middle of the present century, and 
to Newcomb, Young, and Langley in our own time. 
The application of photographic apparatus to the tele- 
scope, a step of extreme importance, was made about 
1853, by Lewis Rutherfurd, of New York. By taking 
photographs of stars and planets, many discoveries have 
been made which would otherwise have been impossible. 

Few practical incidents of scientific investigation 
have added more to the pleasure and instruction of man- 
kind than the invention of photography. Be- photo- 
fore it, only rich people could afford to have gra P hy - 
their portraits painted ; now scarcely anybody is so poor 
that he cannot have pictures of his dear friends. The 
first person who photographed the human face (in 1839) 
was John William Draper, of New York, eminent as 
physicist and physiologist, and father of Henry Draper, 
eminent in astronomy. By further applications of 



486 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII. 

photography we are made acquainted with landscapes, 
buildings, and works of art in all parts of the world. 

For original work in mathematics, the names of Na- 
Mathe- thaniel Bowditch (1773-1838) and Benjamin 
matks. Peirce (1 809-1 880) hold a high place. A son 
of the latter, Charles Sanders Peirce, has made con- 
tributions of extraordinary value to the science of logic. 

In the department of natural history, no name among 
Natural botanists all over the world stands higher than 
History. ^^ Q £ ^ ga Q ra y i n z0 6logy the work of the 

two Agassizs, father and son, is equally famous. In geo- 
logy the name of James Dwight Dana is among the fore- 
most ; while in our time no more important scientific 
work has been done in any country than that of Leidy, 
Cope, and Marsh, in investigating the remains of ex- 
tinct forms of animal life. In the very different field of 
descriptive ornithology, who is there that does not know 
the names of Wilson and Audubon ? In medicine one 
of the most memorable things ever achieved 
e lcine " was done in the United States. The use of 
anaesthetics in painful operations was begun in 1844 by 
Horace Wells, of Hartford, who used nitrous oxide, or 
" laughing gas ; " and two years afterwards Charles 
Jackson and William Morton, of Boston, introduced the 
use of sulphuric ether. 

But we must not pass without mention the name 
which is perhaps the greatest in the history of Amer- 
ican science. Benjamin Thompson, better known by 
his title as Count Rumford, was born in Woburn, near 
Boston, in the year 1753. As the Revolutionary War 
came on, his Tory sympathies made Massachusetts an 
uncomfortable place for him. He went to England, 
where he was presently knighted for his scientific achieve- 



§ i 7 S. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 487 

ments. Some time afterwards Sir Benjamin Thompson 
removed to Germany and continued his work. His 
fame grew steadily, and for sundry services he Mo ] ecu i ar 
was made a Count of the Empire, with the physics- 
title of Rumford. 1 It was he who discovered and proved 




BENJAMIN THOMPSON, COUNT RUMFORD. 

that heat is a mode of motion, and thus laid the founda- 
tion of the whole vast science of molecular physics. 
One of the world's great names in the history of phi- 

1 From the town of Rumford (now Concord) in New Hampshire, 
where Thompson had lived for a while. 



488 



THE FEDERAL UNION. 



Ch. XVII. 



phy. 



losophy is that of Jonathan Edwards, the profoundest 
thinker that America has ever produced. He was born 
in East Windsor, Conn., in 1703, was at one time pas- 
Phiioso- tor °f a church in Northampton, Mass., and 
afterward president of the college at Princeton, 
N. J. His best known 
work is his " Treatise on 
the Will," a marvellous 
specimen of deep and 
powerful reasoning, a 
book which no student 
of philosophy, for many 
a year to come, can af- 
ford to neglect. As a 
preacher, also, Edwards 
holds an eminent place 
in the brilliant list of 
pulpit orators which be- 
gan with John Cotton, 
and has in recent times 
included such names as Henry Ward Beecher and 
Phillips Brooks. 

The excellence of American books on law and juris- 
prudence early attracted attention in Europe, where 
the names of Kent and Greenleaf and Story have long 
been famous. Wheaton's work on International Law is 
recognized throughout the world as of the highest 
authority, and it has been worthily supplemented by 
the learned and elegant writings of the late President 
Woolsey, of Yale. The work of Wharton on Medical 
Jurisprudence is that of a finished master of the subject, 
jurispru- The decisions of Chief Justice Marshall are 
dence. among the most far-reaching that have ever 
been given by an English-speaking judge. In this 




PHILLIPS BROOKS. 



§ 178. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 489 

connection should be cited The Federalist, a volume of 
essays written in 1788 by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, 
to explain to our people the meaning and intention of 
the new Constitution. This book can never be out- 
grown or superseded, and should be studied by every 
American citizen who wishes to take part in the work 
of legislation. 

Of American names in literature, the most illustrious 
were mentioned in the course of our narrative of events 
(§§ 126, 131, 159). To those may be added the exqui- 
site poets, Cranch and Parsons, and their younger suc- 
cessors, Aldrich and Gilder ; nor should we forget Julia 
Ward Howe, author of the stirring Battle Hymn of the 
Republic. As delightful essayists and critics may be 
named Thoreau, Stedman, Higginson, Dudley Warner, 
Burroughs, and Thomas Sergeant Perry. Among novel- 
ists should be mentioned Brockden Brown (1771-1810), a 
rare genius, whose works, for a while forgotten, 
are once more attracting attention. Of the 
writings of Susan Warner, at least one, The Wide, Wide 
World (185 1), still seems to have a future before it; 
though a higher grade of art has been attained in the 
rural stories of Sarah Orne Jewett and Mary Wilkins. 
The names of Howells, James, Bret Harte, and Clem- 
ens (better known as " Mark Twain ") tell their own 
story ; and south of Mason and Dixon's line the life of 
the people has been admirably illustrated by Gilmore 
Simms (1 806-1 870), and in these latter days by Esten 
Cooke, Mary Murfree, Harris, Cable, Hopkinson Smith, 
Nelson Page, and others. 1 

To the historians mentioned in our former chapters, 

1 In this mention of names in various departments, no pretence is made 
to completeness. Some novels and poems, omitted here, are mentioned 
in Appendix F. 



490 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII 

two should be added, wh ~>se works, though not of a pop 
Scholar- mar character, a among the glories of Amer 
shi P- ican scholarship. Ticknor's History of Span 

ish Literature stands at the head of works on that sub 
ject. The History of the Incuisition by Henry Charles 
Lea, of Philadelphia, exhibits nth and thoroughness 
of learning to which even Germany can hardly furnish a 
parallel ; it is one of several books by the same au- 
thor to which European writers must come for instruc- 
tion. Kirk's History of Charles the Bold, though not 
equal to Lea's works, is superior to anything France has 
produced on the same subject. Among Shakespeare 
critics another Philadelphian, Horace I oward Furness, 
stands foremost ; and the exhaustive cc "ction of Eng- 
lish and Scottish Ballads, by Professor Child, of Har- 
vard, is known throughout Europe as a colossal monu- 
ment of critical scholarship. In comparative philology 
no name of recent times stands higher than that of the 
late William Dwight Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit at 
Yale. For valuable work in American ethnology and 
archaeology we must cite that of Powell, Bandelier, and 
Cushing; and in Indian linguistics that of Trumbull, 
Hale, and Brinton. 

Coming to the fine arts, our first eminent name is that 
of the portrait painter John Singleton Copley, 
ain mg * whose life was a romance. He was born in 
Boston in 1737, the son of poor parents, .who had lately 
come from Ireland. At an early age he showed an 
irrepressible talent for drawing and painting, and in 
course of time won such local fame that most of the 
eminent and wealthy people in Boston sat to him for 
their portraits. In I760, he was persuaded to send one 
of his pictures to London for exhibition. This made 
him famous in England, so that in 1 774 he went over 



I i78. 



SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 



491 




JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY. 



there and found so much occ ,_ nation that he never re- 
turned to America. His so' John Singleton Copley, 
became Lord Chancellor, ana was raised to the peerage 
p Lord Lyndhurst. 

much can come 
,'ora talents well used. 

Among our early 
painters other eminent 
names are Gilbert Stu- 
art, John Trumbull, 
Benjamin West, and 
Washington Allston. 
During the last rtalf 
century we hav had 
several landscape 
painters of high excel- 
lence, such as Du- 
rand, Cole, Huntington, Inness, Church, Bierstadt, Gif- 
ford, Kensett, Whitredge, Cropsey, Winslow Homer, and 
Homer Martin; and among genre 1 painters Eastman 
Johnson has been pioneer in a school that includes 
Perry, Hennessy, and other eminent names, and has done 
work that rivals that of any people in Europe. The 
paintings of Elihu Vedder show rare originality and 
power ; and last, not least, may be mentioned John La 
Farge, great in many ways. 

Among our really eminent sculptors may be named 
Greenough, Crawford, Powers, Ball, Story, Ward, French, 
MacMonnies, and St. Gaudens. The American people 
have known less about their sculptors than 
about their painters, and much less about 
either than about their poets. A printed book goes 

1 Genre painting is that which depicts little scenes, such as " Going to 
Church," " The Courting," etc. It bears somewhat the same relation to 
his* 1--1 painting that writing short stories bears to writing history. 



Sculpture. 



492 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII. 

everywhere, but to see a picture or a statue, you must 
go where it is. Everybody could read Hiawatha, few 
could see Ward's Indian Hunter or Church's Heart of 
the Andes. Moreover, painters and sculptors, especially 
the latter, have been obliged to study in Europe, on ac- 
count of the scarcity of materials for study in this 
country, and this has tended to keep them out of touch 
with the people. Until the middle of this century, 
Americans had few chances of seeing good works of art 
without crossing the ocean. There has been a marked 
change. Several of our large cities have excellent art 
galleries, and their extension should be in every way 
encouraged, for the educational importance of a study of 
the fine arts cannot be exaggerated. 

Music is still more inaccessible to the people than 
painting and sculpture. You can see a picture when- 
ever you go to the gallery where it hangs, but a 
great oratorio may be performed two or three 
times, and then not be heard again for twenty years. 
Even when it is performed only a few thousand 
people hear it. For a musical education it is abso- 
lutely necessary to hear much good music ; and here 
our gratitude will always be due to Theodore Thomas, a 
conductor of unsurpassed learning and judgment, whose 
superb orchestral concerts (since about 1865) in many 
parts of the United States have done so much to 
familiarize people with the highest compositions in 
every style, from Bach to Wagner. The growth of 
musical conservatories in our large cities is an encour- 
aging symptom of progress ; and we have one com- 
poser, John Knowles Paine, now in the prime of his 
powers, whose magnificent choral and orchestral works 
are not excelled by those of any European musician now 
living. 



§ 178. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 493 

The influence of the theatre, like that of the press, 
may be either refining or degrading. At its best it is 
a highly civilizing influence. Like music, it The 
can reach only persons directly in its presence, theatre, 
and the work of the actor is ephemeral in a very dif- 
ferent sense from that of the composer. The printed 
symphonies of Beethoven will doubtless be played a 
thousand years hence, but when Sarah Siddons died a 
marvellous voice was hushed forever. In America the 
work of the stage has been eminently creditable ; the 
names of Forrest, Booth, and Charlotte Cushman in 
tragedy, and of Jefferson and Warren in comedy, might 
be mentioned with pride in any country. For the last 
quarter of a century one of the greatest of European 
tragedians, Fanny Janauschek, has made her home in 
the United States. 

American architecture has in large measure been in 
the condition described by an early settler of Architec . 
Virginia, who said that " houses were for use, ture - 
not for ornament." Yet many of the dwellings and 
some of the churches of the colonial times showed that 
beauty is not incompatible with usefulness. The Old 
South Meeting-House (p. 202) and Colonel Vassall's 
domicile (p. 207) are unpretentious and in their way 
sound and good specimens of architecture. It was 
when pretentiousness and the uneducated craving for 
the ornamental began to find expression, that ugliness 
chiefly flourished, reaching its lowest point, perhaps, 
about i860. Since then we have seen a remarkable 
development in the right direction, and we have had 
one genius, the late Henry Hobson Richardson, who 
must be ranked among the world's great architects. 
Such examples as his works come to be quickly appre- 
ciated. People are beginning to realize that beautiful 



494 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVII. 

surroundings add to the value of human life and employ 
human industry in worthy ways. Healthful 

Parks. 

and charming parks and public gardens have 
been added to many of our cities, and under the guid- 
ance of Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape gardening 
has come to take its place among the fine arts. 

The present section has not been written, and should 
not be read, in a boastful spirit. No error is more 
baneful than that of over-rating one's own immediate 
surroundings, and one chief value of intelligent travel 
is that it tends to cure that sort of error. To pretend 
that our country has yet attained the high level of Eng- 
land in science and poetry, or of Germany in scholarship 
and music, or of France and Italy in the arts of design, 
would be folly. Nevertheless, the facts and names cited 
in this chapter are in a high degree gratifying and 
inspiring. They bear witness to a remarkable intellec- 
Theout- tua ^ awakening in every direction since the 
look. middle of the present century, and they give 

us good reason to believe that our children, to whom 
such advantages are bequeathed, will accomplish still 
more than their forefathers. Such a prospect seemed 
to be plainly foreshadowed in the most recent and great- 
est of World's Fairs. 

179. The Columbian Pair. The year 1893 will be 
long remembered for the great World's Fair at Chicago, 
in celebration of the discovery of America by Christo- 
pher Columbus. This was remarkable beyond all previ- 
ous exhibitions of the sort, either in this or in any other 
country, not only by the richness of its collections, but 
by the architectural beauty and artistic grouping of the 
temporary buildings in which they were displayed. 

We have now entered upon the fifth century since the 
grand event so worthily commemorated at Chicago. He 



496 THE FEDERAL UNION. Ch. XVIL 

who studies this little book will realize that immense 
efforts have been put forth during this period, and that 
much work has been done. He will probably also feel 
that the world has grown to be somewhat better than 
it was in earlier ages. The lives of millions of human 
beings are richer to-day by reason of the thoughts and 
deeds of many of the men whose portraits have found a 
place in these pages. 

topics and questions. 

177. Material Progress. 

1. The half-way station in American history. 

2. American history before 1750 and after. 

3. The increase of population in the United States. 

4. The shifting of the centre of population. 

5. The increase of population in Europe. 

6. General causes of this increase. 

7. Special cause of the increase in the United States. 

8. Swift communication and its effect. 

9. Labor-saving machinery for farms. 

10. Labor-saving machinery for in-door occupations. 

11. The debt of the Federal Union to the railroad and the 

telegraph. 

12. The effect of the telegraph on the business of the country. 

13. Our postal system down to 1845. 

14. Postal improvements from 1845 to 1885. 

15. International postal arrangements. 

16. The telephone. 

17. Street railroads. 

18. Lighting and warming. 

19. Concentration of population in cities. 

20. A not improbable counter tendency. 

21. The Weather Bureau. 

178. Progress in Culture. 

1. The American system of public schools. 

2. Its development of a reading public. 

3. Public libraries. 

4. Colleges founded before the Revolution. 



Ch. XVII. SOME FEATURES OF PROGRESS. 497 

5. Some of the colleges founded since the Revolution. 

6. Colleges for women. 

7. A few of our great libraries. 

8. The development of museums. 

9. Astronomy. 

10. Photography. 

11. Mathematics. 

12. Natural history. 

13. Ornithology. 

14. Medicine. 

15. Physics. 

16. Philosophy. 

17. Preachers. 

18. Jurisprudence. 

19. Literature. 

20. Various scholarly works. 

21. Painting. 

22. Sculpture. 

23. Music. 

24. The theatre. 

25. Architecture. 

26. Comparison with European attainment. 

27. The outlook. 

179. The Columbian Fair. 

1. The object of the fair. 

2. Its remarkable character. 

3. Richer lives because of our history. 



APPENDIX A. 
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Preamble. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide 
for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure 
the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

Article I. Legislative Department. 

Section I. Congress in General. 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Section II. House of Representatives. 

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and 
the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citi- 
zen of the United States, and who shah not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, ac- 
cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by 
adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound 
to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, 
three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be 
made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of 
the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, 
in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Repre- 



500 APPENDIX A. 

sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enume- 
ration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled 
to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, 
Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, 
North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section III. Senate. 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six 
years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, 
at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the 
expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every 
second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise 
during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive 
thereof may make temporary appointments' until the next meeting 
of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi- 
dent pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he 
shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
rence of two thirds of the members present. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 5OI 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but 
the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to in- 
dictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section IV. Both Houses. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Sena- 
tors and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the 
legislature thereof; but the Congress may at anytime bylaw make 
or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Sen- 
ators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section V. The Houses Separately. 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
stitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance 
of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as 
each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- 
ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence 
of two thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of 
either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those 
present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Section VI. Privileges and Disabilities of Members. 

1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa- 
tion for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of 
the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, 



502 APPENDIX A. 

and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech 
or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other 
place. 

. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 
ments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no 
person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem- 
ber of either house during his continuance in office. 

Section VII. Mode of Passing Laws. 

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- 
tives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to 
the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, 
but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in 
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large 
on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsid- 
eration two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall 
be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which 
it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of 
that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of 
both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names 
of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on 
the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be re- 
turned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after 
it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn- 
ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives maybe necessary (except 
on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President 
of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall 
be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed 
by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord- 
ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 503 

Section VIII. Powers granted to Congress. 
The Congress shall have power : 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare 
of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be 
uniform throughout the United States ; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing 
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to 
their respective writings and discoveries ; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas and offenses against the law of nations ; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces ; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 1 
the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili- 
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the 
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia 
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

1 7. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat 
of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like author- 



5O4 APPENDIX A. 

ity over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and 

1 8. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 1 

Section IX. Powers denied to the United States. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im- 
portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor 
shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, 
or pay duties in another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement 
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
shall be published from time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and 
no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
ment, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign State. 

Section X. Powers denied to the States. 

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation ; 
grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 

1 This is the Elastic Clause in the interpretation of which arose the original and 
fundamental division of political parties. See above, p. 269. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 505 

credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment 
of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- 
pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net pro- 
duce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the 
Congress. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter 
into any agreement or compact with another State or with a for- 
eign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such 
imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

Article II. Executive Department. 

Section I. President and Vice-President. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected as follows : 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole num- 
ber of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be en- 
titled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
appointed an elector. 

3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhab- 
itant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a 
list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for 
each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to 
the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the 
President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the 
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person hav- 
ing the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such num- 
ber be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if 
there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal 



506 APPENDIX A. 

number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immedi- 
ately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person 
have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing 
the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 
from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and 
a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every 
case, after the choice of the President, the person having the great- 
est number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. 
But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the 
Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] 1 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors 
and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be 
the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and 
the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer 
shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or a. President 
shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished dur- 
ing the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall 
not receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : 

" I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my 
ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United 
States." 

1 This clause of the Constitution has been amended. See Amendments, Art. 
XII. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 



507 



Section II. Powers of the President. 

1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the Army and 
Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States 
when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties 
of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant re- 
prieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators 
present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the ad- 
vice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other 
public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all 
other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not 
herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by 
law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such 
inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in 
the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- 
sions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section III. Duties of the President. 

He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on 
extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, 
and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time 
of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think 
proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; 
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall 
commission all the officers of the United States. 

Section IV. Impeachment. 

The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and con- 
viction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemean- 
ors. 



508 APPENDIX A. 

Article III. Judicial Department. 

Section I. United States Courts. 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the 
supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a 
compensation which shall not be diminished during their continu- 
ance in office. 

Section II. Jurisdiction of the United States Courts. 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 
authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis- 
ters, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdic- 
tion ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; 
to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and 
citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; be- 
tween citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of 
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and 
foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 1 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases be- 
fore mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdic- 
tion, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the 
said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed 
within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
Congress may by law have directed. 

Section III. Treason. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- 
ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless 
1 This clause has been amended. See Amendments, Art. XI. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 509 

on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on con- 
fession in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood 
or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

Article IV. — The States and the Federal Govern- 
ment. 

Section I. State Records. 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may b)' general laws prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 

thereof. 

Section II. Privileges of Citizens, etc. 

1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris- 
diction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, 
but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such ser- 
vice or labor may be due. 1 

Section III. New States and Territories. 

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of 
two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the 
legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Con- 
stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States or of any particular State. 

1 This clause has bean canceled by Amendment XIII., which abolishes slavery. 



5IO APPENDIX A. 

Section IV. Guarantee to the States. 
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the 
executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against do- 
mestic violence. 

Article V. Power of Amendment. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, 
on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which in 
either case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this 
Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of 
the several States, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as 
the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
Congress, provided that no amendment which may be made prior 
to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any 
manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of 
the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be 
deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

Article VI. Public Debt, Supremacy of the Constitu- 
tion, Oath of Office, Religious Test. 

i. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every 
State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws 
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, 
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office or public trust under the United States. 



THE CONSTITUTION. 5 1 I 

Article VII. Ratification of the Constitution. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suf- 
ficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States 
present, 1 the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our 
Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of 
the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. 

New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 

Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. 

Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 

New York — Alexander Hamilton. 

New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearly, William Pat- 
terson, Jonathan Dayton. 

Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert 
Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. 

Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickin- 
son, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. 

Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 
Daniel Carroll. 

Virginia — John Blair, James Madison. Jr. 

North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinck- 
ney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. 

Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 

Attest: William Jackson. Secretary. 

1 Rhode Island sent no delegates to the Federal Convention. 



512 APPENDIX A. 



AMENDMENTS. 1 

Article I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- 
ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the 
freedom of speech or of the press ; or the right of the people 
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a re- 
dress of grievances. 

Article II. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. 

Article III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a man- 
ner to be prescribed by law. 

Article IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon prob- 
able cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be 
seized. 

Article V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice 
put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of 
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 

Article VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 

1 Amendments I. to X. were proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 1789, and de- 
clared in force Dec. 15, 1791. 



AMENDMENTS. 513 

district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which dis- 
trict shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be in- 
formed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted 
with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for 
obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of 
counsel for his defense. 

Article VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com- 
mon law. 

Article VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Article IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Article X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively or to the people. 

Article XI. 1 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

Article XII. 2 

1. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they 
shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and 
in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they 

1 Proposed by Congress March 5, 1794, and declared in force Jan. 8, 1798. 

2 Proposed by Congress Dec. 12, 1803, and declared in force Sept. 25, 1804. 



5 14 APPENDIX A. 

shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and 
of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of 
votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for 
President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have 
such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers 
not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall 
devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, 
then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-Pres- 
ident shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a 
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate 
shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall 
consist of two thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a ma- 
jority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Pres- 
ident shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United 
States. 

Article XIII. 1 

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- 
ment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

l Proposed by Congress Feb. 1, 1865, and declared in force Dec. 18, 1865. 



AMENDMENTS. 5 I 5 

Article XIV. 1 

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and sub- 
ject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or en- 
force any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any per- 
son of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor 
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of 
the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number 
of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
President and Vice-President of the United States, Representa- 
tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or 
the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citi- 
zens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- 
ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of 
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such State. 

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, 
or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil 
or military, under the United States or under any State, who, hav- 
ing previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legisla- 
ture, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support 
the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insur- 
rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to 
the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds 
of each house, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur- 
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, 
and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

1 Proposed by Congress June 16, 1866, and declared in force July 28, 1868. 



5l6 APPENDIX B. 

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Article XV. 1 

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on ac- 
count of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 



APPENDIX B. 
THE STATES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO ORIGIN. 

1. The thirteen original states. 

2. States formed directly from other states : 

Vermont from territory disputed between New York and 
New Hampshire; Kentucky from Virginia; Maine from 
Massachusetts ; West Virginia from Virginia. 

3. States from the Northwest Territory (see p. 310): 

Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, 

Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, in part. 

4. States from other-territory ceded by states : 

Tennessee, ceded by North Carolina, 

Alabama, ceded by South Carolina and Georgia, 

Mississippi, ceded by South Carolina and Georgia. 

5. States from the Louisiana purchase (see p. 282) : 
Louisiana, Nebraska, Montana, 
Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, in part, 
Missouri, North Dakota, Wyoming, in part, 
Kansas, South Dakota, Colorado, in part. 

6. States from Mexican cessions (see p. 336, 348): 

California, Utah, Wyoming, in part, 

Nevada, Colorado, in part. 

7. States from territory defined by treaty with Great Britain 
(see p. 330) : 

Oregon, Washington, Idaho. 

8. States from other sources : 

Florida, from a Spanish cession (see p. 307). 
Texas, by annexation (see p. 333-335)- 
l Proposed by Congress Feb. 26, 1869, and declared in force March 30, 1870. 



APPENDIX C. 



517 



APPENDIX C. 
TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
(Ratio 0/ representation based on census of i%go — 173,901.) 



Dates. 


No. 


1787, Dec. 7 


1 


Dec. 12 


2 


Dec. 18 


3 


1788, Jan. 2 


4 


Jan. 9 


5 


Feb. 6 


6 


April 28 


7 


May 23 


8 


June 21 


9 


June 25 


10 


July 26 


11 


1789, Nov. 21 


12 


1790, May 29 


13 


1791, March 4 


14 


1792, June 1 


IS 


1796, June 1 


16 


1803, Feb. 19 


•7 


1812, April 30 


18 


1816, Dec. n 


'9 


1817, Dec. 10 


20 


1818, Dec. 3 


21 


1819, Dec. 14 


22 


1820, March 15 


23 


182 1, Aug. 10 


24 


1836, June 15 


25 


1837, Jan. 26 


26 


1845, March 3 


27 


1845, Dec. 29 


28 


1846, Dec. 28 


29 


1848, May 29 


3° 


1850, Sept. 9 


3i 


1858, May 11 


32 


1859, Feb. 14 


33 


1861, Jan. 29 


34 


1863, June 19 


35 


1864, Oct. 31 


36 


1867, March 1 


37 


1876, Aug. 1 


38 


1889, Nov. 2 | 


39 
40 


1889, Nov. 8 


41 


1889, Nov. 11 


42 


1890, July 3 


43 


1890, July 10 


44 


1896, Jan. 4 


45 


1850, Sept. 9 




1863, Feb. 24 




1868, July 27 




1834, June 3° 




1889, April 22 




1791, March 3 





Names. 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota ) 

South Dakota ) 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

Indian Territory 

Oklahoma 

Dist. of Columbia 



Popula- 
tion to 


Area in 


sq. m. 


sq. m. 


82.1 


2,050 


1 1 1.2 


45,215 


'79-7 


7,8i5 


30.8 


59,475 


149.5 


4,990 


269.2 


8,3i5 


85.3 


12,210 


37-6 


30,570 


40.4 


9,305 


39- 


42,450 


121. 9 


49> I 70 


30.9 


52,250 


276.4 


1,250 


34-6 


9>56S 


46. 


40,400 


. 42. 


42,050 


89.4 


41,060 


22.9 


48,720 


60.3 


36,35o 


42.7 


46,810 


67.5 


56,650 


28.9 


52,250 


20. 


33,040 


38.5 


69,4'5 


20.9 


S3 : 85o 


35-5 


58,9 '5 


6.6 


58,680 


8.4 


265,780 


34-i 


56,025 


3°- 


56,040 


7.6 


158,360 


15.6 


83,365 


3-2 


96,030 


>7-3 


82,080 


3°-7 


24,780 


0.4 


110,700 


• 3.6 


77>5io 


3-9 


103,925 


2-5 


70,795 


4.2 


77,650 


0.9 


146,080 


5- 


69,180 


0.9 


84,800 


0.6 


97,890 


2-4 


84,970 


1.2 


122,580 


0.5 


113,020 




577,390 




3»,40o 


'•5 


39.030 


3,291.1 


70 





a 




^ 




r j sO 


Popula- 


.£" 


tion, 1890. 


" if 




" V 




S-M 




I 


168,493 


5,258,014 


30 


1,444,933 


8 


1,837,353 


11 


746,258 


4 


2,238,943 


'3 


1,042,390 


6 


i»'5i,'49 


7 


376,530 


2 


1.655,980 


10 


5,997,853 


34 


1,617,947 


9 


345,5o6 


2 


332,422 


2 


1,858,635 


11 


1,767,518 


10 


3,672,316 


21 


1,118,587 


6 


2,192,404 


13 


1,289,600 


7 


3,826,351 


22 


1,513,017 


9 


661,086 


4 


2,679,184 


'5 


1,128,179 


6 


2,093,889 


12 


391,422 


2 


2,235,523 


13 


1,911,896 


11 


1,686,880 


10 


1,208,130 


7 


1,301,826 


7 


313,767 


2 


1,427,096 


8 


762,794 


4 


45,76i 


1 


1,058,910 


6 


412,198 


2 


182,719 


1 


328,808 


2 


•32,159 


1 


349,39° 


2 


84,385 


1 


60,705 


1 


207,905 


1 


"53,593 




59,620 




no census 




no census 




61,834 




230,392 





1896, total House of Representatives 357 -f- Senate 90 = electoral votes, 447. 



5 18 APPENDIX D. 



APPENDIX D. 

NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES, WITH 
MENTION OF BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF THE 
SEVERAL STATES. 

U^p" The clue to the meaning of Indian names cannot always be found, and 
popular interpretations are sometimes fanciful and ill supported. Hence, I can- 
not always give a positive statement on these points. 

H^p*™ In the enumeration of books on state history given below, I have some- 
times separated one title or group of titles from those which follow it by intro- 
ducing a semicolon. The titles which precede the semicolon are those of books 
which I recommend especially to readers who cannot afford time for extensive 
study of the subject. A dash before the semicolon, instead of a title, means that 
I do not know of any book to be specially commended for that particular pur- 
pose. In the case of some of the newer states, there is as yet scarcely any histori- 
cal literature in available shape. Much valuable information is contained in 
King's Handbook of the United States, Buffalo, N. Y., Moses King Corporation, 
1891. — ■ The parenthesis (A. C.) after a title means that the book is one of the 
series of American Commonwealths, published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., and 
(J. H. U.) means that it is one of the series of monographs published by the 
Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore. 

Alabama, named from its principal river. The name is com- 
monly supposed to mean " Here we rest," and these words are on 
the state's coat-of-arms ; but this interpretation has been doubted. 

Pickett's History of Alabama, Charleston, 185 1, 2 vols. 

Alaska, name given by Captain Cook in the maps of his voyage 
in 1778, said to be a corruption of an aboriginal word, al-ak-shak, 
meaning " great land," or " main land." 

Dall's Alaska and its Resources, Boston, 1870. Hubert Ban- 
croft's Alaska, San Francisco, 1886. 

Arizona, of uncertain meaning. 

Hubert Bancroft's Arizona and New Mexico, San Francisco, 
1888. 

Arkansas, after its principal river. The meaning of the name 
is uncertain ; it may be akin to Kansas. A resolution of the state 
senate, in 1881, declared the true pronunciation to be Ar'kan-saw. 
It was formerly often spelled so, and it would perhaps be well if 
this more correct spelling could be restored. A popular name of 
Arkansas is the Bear State. 

; Henry's Resources of Arkansas, Little Rock, 1872. 

California. In a Spanish romance, printed before 1520, the 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 5 19 

name California was given to an imaginary island somewhere in 
the Far East, " near the Terrestrial Paradise." A party of Span- 
iards, coming in 1535 to the peninsula which we now call Lower 
California, believed that they had found this romantic island, or a 
place quite like it, and named it accordingly. Afterward, when 
the country to the north of the peninsula was discovered, it was 
called Alta California, that is, High California. Since this became 
one of the United States, the adjective has been dropped. A pop- 
ular name is the Golden State. 

Royce's California (A. C.) ; Soule's Annals of San Francisco, 
New York, 1855. Hittell's Resources of California, San Fran- 
cisco, 1863. Hubert Bancroft's History of California, San Fran- 
cisco, 1884-90, 7 vols. 

Carolina. The name was given by Ribault and his Huguenots 
(§ 26) in 1562 to a fort which they built near Beaufort, S. C. It 
was given in honor of Charles IX., king of France, and, as it 
would serve as well for one Charles (Lat. Carolus) as another, the 
name, which had come to be applied to the neighborhood, was 
retained by Charles II., king of England (§ 64) in his charter of 
1663. South Carolina is familiarly known as the Palmetto State, 
and its neighbor is often called the Old North State. 

Williamson's History of North Carolina, Philadelphia, 181 2, 
2 vols. ; Hawks's History of North Carolina, Fayetteville, 1857, 
2 vols. Martin's History of North Carolina, New Orleans, 1829, 
2 vols. 

Simms's History of South Carolina, New York, i860. Simms's 
Geography of South Carolina, Charleston, 1843 ; Ramsey's History 
of the Revolution of South Carolina, Trenton, 1785, 2 vols. Lo- 
gan's History of the Upper Country of South Carolina, Charleston, 
1859. 

Colorado, after the river of the same name, a Spanish adjective 
meaning " red," the prevailing color of the rocks and soil of the 
Rocky Mountains, as well as of the mud-laden streams which flow 
down from them. A favorite nickname is the Centennial State, 
because it was admitted to the Union just one hundred years after 
the Declaration of Independence. 

; Bowles's Colorado, Springfield, 1889. Fossetts's Colo- 
rado, Denver, 1777. 

Connecticut, after its principal river, the Algonquin name mean- 
ing " long river." The state is sometimes called the Land of 
Steady Habits ; also the Nutmeg State, from the jocular calumny 



520 APPENDIX D. 

that its peddlers were in the habit of palming off wooden nutmegs 
on their customers. 

Johnston's Connecticut (A. C), Levermore's Republic of New 
Haven (J. H. U.) ; Trumbull's History of Connecticut, New Haven, 
1818, 2 vols. Stiles's History of Ancimt Windsor, Albany, 1858, 
2 vols. 

Dakota, or " the allies," is the name by which the people of the 
greatest of the northwestern Indian confederacies called themselves. 
Their neighbors, the Ojibwas, called them Nadowaysioux, or " en- 
emies," and French pioneers shortened this name to Sioux. The 
state of North Dakota is sometimes called the Sioux State, while 
its southern sister has been called the Coyote State. 

; Dodge's The Black Hills, New York, 1876. Neill's 

Dakotah Land and Dakotah Life, Philadelphia, 1859. 

Delaware. The name of Lord Delaware (§ 34) was given first 
to the bay, then to the river, finally to the state. 

; Ferris's History of the Original Settlements an the Del- 
aware, etc., Wilmington, 1846. 

Florida is the Spanish adjective for " flowery." Pascua Florida, 
" Flowery Passover," is the Spanish name for Easter Sunday, the 
day on which Ponce de Leon (§ 22) rediscovered Florida, in 15 13. 

Brinton's Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, Philadelphia, 1859. 
Fairbanks's History of Florida, Philadelphia, 187 1. Fairbanks 's 
History and Antiquities of St. Augustine, New York, 1858. 
Lanier's Florida. Lts Scenery, Cli7nate, and History, Philadelphia, 
1876. 

Georgia, named after King George II. 

Jones's History of Georgia, Boston, 1883, 2 vols. ; Stevens's 
History of Georgia, New York, 1847, 2 vols. White's Historical 
Collections of Georgia, New York, 1855. 

Idaho, a Shoshone name, said to refer to the bright sunshine 
on the mountain tops, so characteristic of that strangely beautiful 
country. 

; Fry's Traveller's Guide to the Great Northwestern 

Territories, Cincinnati, 1865. 

Illinois, the name of its principal river, and of the confederated 
tribes dwelling along its banks. Sometimes called the Prairie State. 

; Carpenter's History of Lllinois, Philadelphia, 1857. 

Bross's History of Chicago, Chicago, 1876. Ford's History of 
Illmois, Chicago, 1854. Edwards's History of Illinois, Spring- 
field, 1870. 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 521 

Indiana, a name coined for the territory formed in 1800, out of 
which have been made the states of Indiana, Illinois, and Wiscon- 
sin, with part of Michigan. Indiana is sometimes called the Hoosier 
State, a nickname of which the origin and meaning are uncertain. 

Dunn's Indiana (A. C N ; Dillon's History of Indiana, Indian- 
apolis, 1859. Goodrich cc Tuttie, History of Indiana, 1876. 

Iowa. Of the various conjectural explanations of the name, I 
am inclined to prefer that which derives it from Algonquin ajawa, 
"across" or "beyond," as a name applied by the Illinois tribes to 
their enemies on the other side of the Mississippi. The well-known 
nickname is the Hawkeye State. The epithet was suggested in 
1838 to James Edwards (editor of the newspaper since known as 
The Hawkeye), by Hon. David Rorer, who afterward made it 
popular by his series of letters signed " A Wolverine among the 
Hawk eyes." 

; Tuttle & Durrie, Illustrated History of the State of 

Iowa to 1875. 

Kansas. This name (the English spelling of which should have 
been Kansaw) seems to be a Dakota word meaning "south wind 
people," and applied to various Indians south of the Dakotas. 

Spring's Kansas (A. C.) ; Tuttle's Centennial History of the 
State of Kansas, Madison, Wis., 1876. Holloway's History of 
Kansas, Lafayette, 1868. 

Kentucky, probably an Iroquois word kenta-ke, " hunting 
land." The common interpretation, the " dark and bloody ground," 
is doubtless wrong. The nickname is Blue Grass State. 

Shaler's Ke7itucky (A. C); Humphrey Marshall's History of 
Kentucky, Frankfort, 1824, 2 vols. Collins's History of Kentucky, 
Covington, 1874, 2 vols. 

Louisiana, after Louis XIV. (§ 68). Sometimes called the Peli- 
can State, from its coat-of-arms. 

Gayarre's History of Louisiana, New York, 1866, 3 vols. Mar- 
tin's History of Louisiana, New Orleans, 1827, 2 vols. 

Maine, so called in the charter of 1639, in which Charles I. 
granted the land cc Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The name had al- 
ready come into ,-ogue among sailors, as distinguishing the main- 
land from the numerous islands on its coast. The popular nick- 
name is the Pine Tree State. 

Williamson's History of Maine, Hallowell, 1839, 2 vols. ; Willis's 
History of Portland, Portland, 1865. 

Maryland, so called for Henrietta Maria, the queen of Charles I. 

Browne's Maryland (A. C.) ; Neill's Founders of Maryland, 



522 APPENDIX D. 

Albany, 1877. McSherry's History of Maryland, Baltimore, 1849. 
Scharfs History of Maryland, Baltimore, 1879, 3 vols. 

Massachusetts, from the Algonquin phrase massa-wachuset, 
" at the great hill." The name first designated the tribe living near 
Blue Hill, in Milton ; it was afterward applied to the great bay 
which Blue Hill overlooks. Until 1692, the colony was called the 
"Massachusetts Bay Colony;" then, until 1776, the style became 
the " Province of Massachusetts Bay." It is often called the Bay 
State. 

Barry's History of Massachusetts, Boston, 1857, 3 vols. ; Young's 
Chronicles of the First Planters, Boston, 1846. Quincy's History 
of Boston, Boston, 1852. Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts 
Bay, vols. i. and ii., Salem, 1795, vol. Hi., London, 1828. Holland's 
History of Western Massachusetts, Springfield, 1855, 2 vols. 
Winthrop's History of New England, from 1630 to 1649, Boston, 
1853, 2 vols. Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, Boston, 
1856. Young's Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers, Boston, 1844. 

Michigan, after the name of the lake, in Algonquin, michi-gan, 
" great sea." Sometimes called the Wolverine State. 

Cooley s Michigan (A. C.) ; Lanman's History of Michigan, 
New York, 1839. Tuttle's General History of Michigan, Detroit, 
1873. Lanman's Red Book of Michigan, Detroit, 1871. 

Minnesota, after its river of the same name, in the Dakota lan- 
guage, minne, " water," and sotah, " sky-colored." Sometimes 
called the North Star State, from the motto in its coat-of-arms. 

; Neill's History of Minnesota, Philadelphia, 1858. 

Mississippi, from Algonquin missi-sepe, " great river." Missz, 
michij, and massa are dialectic forms of one and the same Algon- 
quin word, meaning " great." The popular interpretation, " Father 
of Waters," is a mere fancy. The state is nicknamed the Bayou 
State, from the frequent bayous formed by the shifting river. 

; Lov/ery and McCardle's History of Mississippi, Jackson, 

1 89 1. Davis's Recollections of Mississippi and Mississippians, 
Boston, 1890. 

Missouri, from missi-souri, "great muddy" (river). It brings 
down from the Rocky Mountains so much brown mud that the 
water, taken up in a tumbler, looks almost like coffee. The water 
of the upper Mississippi is clear and blue. Below the junction 
the brown color prevails. The Missouri is a far greater body of 
water than the upper Mississippi. Indeed, the Missouri, with the 
lower Mississippi, really constitutes the main stream, and the upper 
Mississippi is the tributary. 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 523 

Carr's Missouri (A. C.) ; Davis's Illustrated History of Missouri, 
St. Louis, 1876. Schoolcraft's Journal of a Tour into Missouri 
and Arkansaw, London, 1821. 

Montana, a Spanish adjective, meaning " mountainous." 

; Maguire's Historical Sketch of Montana, Helena, 1868. 

Stuart's Montana as It Is, New York, 1865. 

Nebraska, from an Indian name of the Platte River, said to 
mean " shallow water." 

Johnson's History of Nebraska, Omaha, 1880. 

Nevada, a Spanish adjective, meaning " snowy." The name of 
the state was taken from the Sierra Nevada, the range of lofty 
mountains separating it from California. 

; Powell's Nevada, the Silver State, San Francisco, 1876. 

King's Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada, Boston, 1874. 

New Hampshire, so named for its lord proprietor, John Mason 
(§ 45), who had been governor of Portsmouth, in Hampshire, Eng- 
land. The popular name is the Granite State, from the rocks and 
soil of the White Mountains. 

Belknap's History of New Hampshire, Boston, 1813, 3 vols. 
Sanborn's History of New Hampshire, Manchester, 1875. Starr 
King's The White Hills, Boston, 1876. 

New Jersey, after the island of Jersey in the English Channel, 
of which Sir George Carteret (§ 62) had been governor. 

Mellick's Story of an Old Farm, Somerville, N. J., 1889. Gor- 
don's History of New Jersey, Trenton, 1834. 

New Mexico, after Mexico. The name was originally applied 
only to the city of Mexico, and was derived from the name of the 
war-god, Mexitl. 

Brevoort's New Mexico, Santa F^, 1874. 

New York, for the Duke of York, afterward King James II. 
It is often called the Empire State. 

Roberts's New York, 2 vols. (A. C.) ; Brodhead's History of the 
State of New York, New York, 1853-71, 2 vols. Mrs. Lamb's 
History of the City of New York, New York, 1877, 2 vols. Weise's 
History of Troy, Troy, 1876. Turner's History of the Holland 
Purchase, Buffalo, 1849. Thompson's History of Long Island, 
New York, 1839. Stiles's History of Brooklyn, Albany, 1867,3 
vols. Barnes's Early History of Albany, Albany, 1S64. Stone's 
Life of Joseph Brant, Albany, 1865, 2 vols. Stone's Life of Red 
Jacket, Albany, 1866. Stone's Life of Sir William Johnson, 
Albany, 1865, 2 vols. 



524 APPENDIX D. 

Ohio, from Iroquois O-hee-yo, " beautiful river." The name was 
first applied by the people of the Five Nations to the river which 
we call by its Algonquin name of Alleghany, one of the chief trib- 
utaries of the Ohio. By degrees the name Ohio may be said to 
have traveled downstream until it was even sometimes applied to 
the Mississippi. At length it became confined to the river between 
Pittsburgh and Cairo, and the first northern state erected upon its 
banks was named after it. Sometimes nicknamed the Buckeye 
State, from the abundance of horse-chestnut trees. 

Rufus King's Ohio (A. C); Fernow's Ohio Valley in Colofiial 
Days, Albany, 1890. Life, Journals, etc., of Manasseh Cutler, 
Cincinnati, 1888, 2 vols. Carpenter's History of Ohio, Philadel- 
phia, 1865. Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio, Cincinnati, 

1875-91, 3 vols. 

Oklahoma, said to mean "fine country." 

Oregon. The traveler Jonathan Carver, while in the Minne- 
sota country in 1766, seems to have heard of a great river very far 
to the west, called Oregon, which may perhaps be the Algonquin 
wau-re-gan, " beautiful water." The name was afterward applied 
to the Columbia River, and thence to the country through which it 
flows. Sometimes called the Sunset State. 

Barrows's Oregon (A. C); Wyeth's Oregon, Cambridge, 1833. 
Travers Twiss, The Oregon Question, London, 1846. Greenhow's 
History of Oregon, New York, 1845. Gray's History of Oregon, 
Portland, 1870. Hubert Bancroft's History of Oregon, San Fran- 
cisco, 1886-88, 2 vols. 

Pennsylvania, " Penn's Woodland." Sometimes called the 
Keystone State, probably because her name was carved on the 
keystone of the bridge over Rock Creek, between Washington and 
Georgetown. Of the original thirteen states Pennsylvania was the 
middle one, with six to the north and six to the south of her. At 
a later period the epithet " Keystone " was commonly used with 
reference to the great importance of the state in national elections. 

Carpenter's History of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1869. Wat- 
son's Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 
1876, 3 vols. Stoughton's William Penn, London, 1882. Chap- 
man's History of Wyoming, Wilkes-Barre, 1830. Stone's Poetry 
and History of Wyoming, Albany, 1864. Brackenridge's History 
of the Western Insurrection, Pittsburgh, 1859. Day's Historical 
Collections of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1843. Gordon's History 
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1829. Graydon's Memoirs, Har- 



NAMES OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 525 

risburg, 181 1. Jones's History of the Juniata Valley, Philadelphia, 
1856. Mombert's History of Lancaster County, Lancaster, 1869. 
Allinson & Penrose's Philadelphia (J. H. U.). 

Rhode Island. The Indian name of the island upon which the 
city of Newport stands was Aquidneck. The English name has 
been variously explained, but the Colonial Act of 1644 declares 
" the island of the Aquidneck shall be called the Isle of Rhodes," 
and this would seem to indicate that the name was taken from the 
famous Greek island in the Mediterranean. The official title of 
the state to-day is the " State of Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations," but in common speech the name of the island stands 
for the whole. 

Arnold's History of Rhode Island, New York, 1874, 2 vols. ; 
Straus's Roger Williams, New York, 1894. Dexter's As to Roger 
Williams, Boston 1876. Rider's Historical Tracts, Providence, 
1878, and following years. 

Tennessee, after the name of its principal river, a Cherokee 
word, meaning " crooked river " or " bend in the river." 

Phelan's History of Tennessee, Boston, 1888 ; Ramsey's Annals 
of Tennessee, Philadelphia, 1853. Paschall's Tennessee History for 
Tennessee Girls and Boys, Nashville, 1869. Putnam's History of 
Middle Tennessee, Nashville, 1859. Old Times in West Tennessee, 
Memphis, 1873. Keating's History of Memphis, Syracuse, N. Y., 
1888. Smith's East Tennessee, London, 1842. 

Texas, the name of a tribe or confederacy of Indians mentioned 
by Cabeza de Vaca (§ 23), who passed through their country in 
1536. Nickname, the Lone Star State (§ 126). 

Thrall's History of Texas, New York, 1876. Baker's History of 
Texas, New York, 1873. Smith's Reminiscences of the Texas 
Republic, Houston, 1876. Olmsted's Journey through Texas, New 
York, 1857. Colonel Crockett's Adventures, London, 1837. Les- 
ter's Houston and his Republic, New York, 1846. 

Utah, an Indian word, said to mean " mountain home." 

Hubert Bancroft's Utah, San Francisco, 1889, Burton's City of 
the Saints, New York, 1862. Green's Fifteen Years among the 
Mormons, New York, 1858. Stenhouse's Rocky Mountain Saints, 
New York, 1873. 

Vermont, from French verts monts, " green mountains." 

Robinson's Vermont (A. C.) ; Allen's History of Vermont, Lon- 
don, 1798. Beckley's History of Vermont, Brattleboro, 1846. 

Virginia, for Elizabeth, the "Virgin Queen." Often called the 



526 APPENDIX D. 

Old Dominion, because Charles II. allowed it to call itself the 
fourth dominion of his empire, i. e., England, Scotland, Ireland, 
and Virginia. 

Esten Cooke's Virginia (A. C). Miss Magill's History of Vir- 
ginia for Schools, Lynchburg, 1881. President Jefferson's Notes 
on Virginia ; Neill's History of the Virginia Company, Albany, 
1869. Beverley's History of Virginia, London, 1705. Burk's His- 
tory of Virginia, Petersburg, 1804-16, 4 vols. Stith's Settlement of 
Virginia, New York, 1865. Meade's Old Churches and Families 
of Virginia, Philadelphia, 1857, 2 vols. Tyler's Letters and Times 
of the Tylers, Richmond, 1884, 2 vols. 

"Washington, named for the Father of his Country. It was 
formerly the central portion of the Oregon country, which also 
comprised Oregon, Idaho, and British Columbia. 

Hubert Bancroft's Washington, Idaho, and Montana, San Fran- 
cisco, 1887. Hubert Bancroft's Northwest Coast, San Francisco, 
1884, 2 vols.; Swan's Northwest Coast, New York, 1856. Revere's 
Keel and Saddle, Boston, 1872. 

West Virginia, separated from the Old Dominion in 1863. 

De Hass's History of the Early Settlement of West Virginia, 
Wheeling, 1851. Atkinson's History of Kanawha County, Charles- 
ton, W. Va., 1876. De Bar's West Virginia Ha?idbook, Parkers- 
burg, 1870. Parker's Formation of West Virginia, Wellsburg, 

1875. 

Wisconsin, after the name of its chief river, possibly an Ojibwa 
phrase, meaning " gathering waters." Sometimes called the 
Badger State. 

Thwaite's Story of Wisconsin, Boston, 1891 ; Wheeler's Chroni- 
cles of Milwaukee, Milwaukee, 1861. Tuttle's History of Wiscon- 
sin, Madison, 1875. Randall's History of the Chippewa Valley, 
Eau Claire, 1875. 

Wyoming, an Indian word, said to mean "broad valley." 
The new state in the Rocky Mountains has received the name of a 
famous valley in the Alleghanies. 

Strahorn's Handbook of Wyoming, Cheyenne, 1877. 

JUg^ Many of the books above mentioned are old and not easily obtainable at 
ordinary bookstores. For information concerning such books, or for obtaining 
them if desired, I would advise the reader to apply to Messrs. Robert Clarke & 
Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, who keep by far the largest collection of books on America 
that can be found on sale in this country. 



BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 527 

APPENDIX E. 
BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 

The letters (A.S.) in a parenthesis after the title of a book indicate 
that it is one of the series of " American Statesmen," published by Houghton, 
Mifflin & Co. since 1882. The letters (M. A.) indicate that it is one of the series 
of " Makers of America," published by Dodd, Mead, & Co. since 1890. 

Prehistoric Times and the Discovery. Fiske's The Discovery 
of America, with Some Account 0/ Ancient America and the Span- 
ish Conquest, Boston, 1892, 2 vols. ; Nadaillac's Prehistoric Amer- 
tea, New York, 1890. 

Colonization of North America. Parkman's works for every- 
thing relating to the French ; Bandelier's The Gilded Man, New 
York, 1893, for some pictures of the Spanish occupation; Doyle's 
Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas, New York, 1882; Doyle's 
The Puritan Colonies, New York, 1887, 2 vols.; Palfrey's History 
of New England, Boston, 1858-89, 5 vols. ; Fiske's Old Virginia 
and her Neighbours, Boston, 1897, and The Beginnings of New 
England, 1889; Schuyler s Colonial New York, New York, 1885, 
2 vols. ; Franklin's Autobiography, ed. Bigelow, Philadelphia, 
1868; Twichell's John Winthrop (M. A.); Walker's Thomas 
Hooker(M. A.); Higginson's Francis Higginson (M. A.) ; Wendell's 
Cotton Mather (M. A.); King's Sieurde Bienville (M. A.); Browne's 
George and Cecilius Calvert (M. A.) ; Bruce's Oglethorpe (M. A.); 
Tuckerman's Peter Stuyvesant (M. A.); Griffis's Sir William 
Johnson (M. A.); Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies. 

The Revolution. Frothingham's Rise of the Republic, Boston, 
1872 ; Greene's Historical View of the American Revolution, New 
York, 1865; Irving's Life of Washington, New York, 1855-59, 
5 vols. ; Fiske's War of Independence {for Young People), Bos- 
ton, 1889 ; Fiske's The American Revolution, Boston, 1890, 
2 vols. ; Fiske's The Critical Period of American History, Boston, 
1888; Roosevelt's The Winning of the West, New York, 1889, 2 
vols.; Hinsdale's The Old Northwest, New York, 1888; Tyler's 
Patrick Henry (A. S.) ; Hosmer's Samuel Adams (A. S.) ; Morse's 
Benjamin Franklin (A. S.); Lodge's George Washington (A. S.), 
2 vols. ; Pellew's John Jay {A. S.); Sumner's Robert Morris (M. 
A.); Scudder's George Washington (for Young People), Boston, 
1889; Coffin's Boys of '76. Especially interesting to girls will be 
Mrs. Ellet's Domestic History of the American Revolution, Phila- 



528 APPENDIX E. 

delphia, 1850. For very full references, see Winsor's Reader's 
Handbook of the American Revolution, Boston, 1880. 

The Federal Union. THE PERIOD OP WEAKNESS. Mc- 
Master's History of the People of the United States, vols, i.-iii., 
1 783—1 8 1 2, New York, 1883-92 ; Schouler's History of the United 
States, 1783-1861, New York, 1880-91, 5 vols. ; Henry Adams's His- 
tory of the United States, 1801-1817, New York, 1889-91, 9 vols. ; 
Roosevelt's The Naval War of 1812, New York, 1882; Roose- 
velt's Gouvemeur Morris (A. S.) ; Morse's John Adams (A. S.); 
Gay's James Madison (A. S.); Stevens's Albert Gallatin (A. S.); 
Gilman's James Monroe (A. S.) ; Adams's John Randolph (A. S.) : 
Magruder's John Marshall (A. S.) ; Morse's Alexander Hamil- 
ton, Boston, 1876, 2 vols. ; Sumner's Alexander Hamilton (M. A.); 
Schouler's Thomas Jefferson (M. A.) ; Parton's Tho?nas Jefferson, 
Boston, 1874; Coffin's Building the Nation, New York, 1883. 

WESTWARD EXPANSION. Benton's Thirty Years' 1 View, New 
York, 1854, 2 vols. ; Parton's Andrew Jackson, New York, 1859, 
3 vols. ; Sumner's Andrew Jackson (A. S.); Morse's John Quincy 
Adams (A. S.); Von Hoist's John C. Calhoun (A. S.); Schurz's 
Henry Clay (A. S.), 2 vols. ; Lodge's Daniel Webster (A. S.) ; Roose- 
velt's Thomas H. Benton (A. S.); Shepard's Martin Van Buren 
(A. S.); McLaughlin's Lewis Cass (A. S..). 

SLA VERY AND SECESSION. Rhodes's History of the United 
States fro7ti the Compromise of i8jo, New York, 1893, 2 vols.; 
Nicolay and Hay's Abraham Lincoln, New York, 1890, 10 vols. ; 
Morse's Abraham Lincoln (A. S.), 2 vols. ; Herndon's Abraham 
Lincoln, New York, 1892, 2 vols.; Pierce's Charles Sumner, Bos- 
ton, 1877-93, 4 vols. ; Life of William Lloyd Garrison, Boston, 
1885-89, 4 vols. ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, New York, 
1887, 4 vols. ; Campaigns of the Civil War, New York, 1881-83, I 3 
vols., viz. : 1, Nicolay's The Outbreak of Rebellion, 2, Force's From 
Fort Henry to Corinth, 3, Webb's The Peninsula, 4, Ropes's The 
Army under Pope, 5, Palfrey's Antietam and Fredericksburg, 6, 
Doubleday's Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, 7, Cist's The Army 
of the Cumberland, 8, Greene's The Mississippi, 9, Cox's Atlanta, 
10, Cox's The March to the Sea : Franklin and Nashville, 1 1, 
Pond's The Shenandoah Valley, 12, Humphreys's The Virginia 
Campaigns of 1864-65, 13, Phisterer's Statistical Record of the Ar- 
mies j an introduction to vol. xii. is Humphreys's From Gettysburg 
to the Rapidan; a companion series is The Navy in the Civil 
War, New York, 1883, 3 vols., viz.: 1. Soley's The Blockade and 
the Cruisers, 2, Ammen's The Atlantic Coast, 3, Mahan's The 



BOOKS ON SUCCESSIVE EPOCHS. 529 

Gulf and Inland Waters. A very brilliant and useful summary of 
the whole subject is Colonel Dodge's A Bird's-Eye View ofotcr 
Civil War, Boston, 1884. 

Among Southern works may be cited Jefferson Davis's Short 
History of the Confederate States, New York, 1890 ; A. H. Stephens's 
View of the War between the States, Philadelphia, 1868, 2 vols.; 
Cooke's Life of Robert Edward Lee, New York, 1871 ; Cooke's 
Stonewall Jackson, New York, 1866 ; Polk's Life of Leonidas Polk, 
New York, 1893, 2 vols.; Jones's Rebel War Clerk's Diary, Phila- 
delphia, 1866, 2 vols. ; Pollard's The Lost Cause, New York, 1866. 
Many of the commanders on both sides have written valuable vol- 
umes of personal memoirs, as, for example, Grant, Sherman, Sheri- 
dan, McClellan, Porter, J. E. Johnston, Early, Semmes, etc. 

For youthful readers I would recommend Champlin's Young 
Folks' History of the War for the Union, New York, 1881 ; 
Coffin's Drumbeat of the A T ation, Redeeming the Republic, March- 
ing to Victory, and Freedom Triumphant, New York, 1887-89.. 

For very full references and directions on the whole subject of 
American history, an invaluable book is Gordy & Twitchell's A 
Pathfinder in American History, Boston : Lee & Shepard, 1893. 
This little book ought to be in every school library. 

By far the best of brief manuals is Epochs of American History, 
edited by A. B. Hart, in 3 vols. ; 1. The Colonies (1492-1750), by 
R. G. Thwaites; 2. Formation of the Union (1 750-1829), by A. B. 
Hart; 3. Division and Reunion (1829-1889), by Woodrow Wilson. 
Also, Hart's Epoch Maps (all N. Y., Longmans, 1892-93). 



APPENDIX F. 



NOVELS, POEMS, SONGS, ETC., RELATING TO AMER- 
ICAN HISTORY. 

I may first mention those contained in the Riverside Literature 
Series, published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co. : — 

No. I. Longfellow's Evangeline ; 2. Longfellow's Courtship of 
Miles Standish; 6. Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill 
Battle, etc.; 7-Q. Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair; 10. Haw- 
thorne's Biographical Stories; 13, 14. Longfellow's Song of Hia- 
watha; 15. Lowell's Under the Old Elm, etc.; 19, 20. Franklin's 
Autobiography ; 24. Washington's Rules of Conduct ; 30. Lowell's 



530 APPENDIX F. 

Vision of Sir Launfal and Other Poems ; 31. Holmes's My Hunt 
after the Captain, etc. ; 32. Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, and Other 
Papers; 33. Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn (part i. contains 
" Paul Revere's Ride ") ; 42. Emerson's Fortune of the Republic; 
51. Irving's Rip Van Winkle, etc.; 56. Webster's First Bunker 
Hill Oration, and Adams and Jefferson; G. extra, Whittier Leaf- 
lets; L. extra, The Riverside Song Book. 1 

In the following list the publishing house is indicated in the pa- 
renthesis. 

Tourge'e's Out of the Sunset Sea (N. Y. : Merrill & Baker) is a 
story based on the imaginary adventures of the one English sailor 
who was in the first voyage of Columbus across the Atlantic. 

Miss Proctor's Song of the Ancient People, with Introduction by 
John Fiske (Boston : Houghton) introduces us to the religious ideas 
of the Moquis and Zufiis (§ 8). 

Munroe's The Flamingo Feather (N. Y. : Harper) relates to the 
Huguenot colony in Florida in 1564. 

Kingsley's Westward Ho (N. Y. : Macmillan) gives a grand and 
stirring picture of Queen Elizabeth's times and the defeat of the 
Spanish armada. 

Mrs. Stowe's The Mayflower, Mrs. Austin's Standish of Stand 
ish, and its sequel, Betty Aldeti, also the same author's Dr. Le 
Baron and his Daughters, and A Nameless Noblenia7i (Boston : 
Houghton) are charming tales of Plymouth and the Pilgrims. 

Longfellow's New England Tragedies (Boston: Houghton) treat 
of the persecution of the Quakers, and the Salem witchcraft. 

Seton's Romance of the Charter Oak (N. Y. : O'Shea) takes us 
to Hartford in the evil days of Andros ; and from this it is but a 
short step to the story next mentioned. 

Bynner's The Begum's Daughter (Boston: Houghton) gives a 
vivid description of life in New York during the usurpation of 
Leisler. 

Paulding's The Dutchman's Fireside (N. Y. : Scribner), one of 
the earliest American novels, deals with colonial life in New York. 
It won a European reputation, and was translated into several lan- 
guages. 

Irving's Knickerbocker's History of New York (N. Y. : Put- 
nam), a humorous and mildly satirical account of the Dutch col- 
ony of New Netherland, will doubtless always be a charming book. 
It is one of the very few burlesques of history that deserve to live. 

Mrs. Catherwood's The Story of Tonty (Chicago : McClurg) 
l See also advertising pages at the end of the book. 



NOVELS, POEMS, SONGS, ETC. 531 

gives a vivid account of Henri de Tonty, the loved and trusted 
lieutenant of La Salle. The same author's The Romance of ' Dollar d 
(N. Y. : Century Co.) may also be commended as a story of early 
times in Canada. 

Gordon's Englishman 's Haven (N. Y. : Appleton) takes us to 
the island of Cape Breton, whose capital, Louisburg, had been 
until 1 713 called English Harbor. 

Bynner's Agnes Sjtrriage (Boston : Houghton), one of the great- 
est of American historical novels, gives a picture of life in Boston 
at the time of the famous Louisburg expedition of 1745. 

Thackeray's The Virginians (Boston : Houghton) is a noble 
story of life in the Old Dominion, beginning about the time of 
Braddock's defeat. 

Kennedy's Swallow Barn is a pretty story of old Virginia ; his 
Rob of the Bowl describes the province of Maryland in the time of 
the second Lord Baltimore ; and his Horse-Shoe Robinson is a tale 
of South Carolina in the Revolutionary War. (All published in 
N. Y. by Putnam.) 

Simms's The Partisan (N. Y. : U. S. Book Co.) has its scene 
in South Carolina in the Revolution. 

Cooper's Last of the Mohicans is a story of the last French or 
Seven Years' War ; his Lionel Lincoln shows us Boston at the time 
of the Bunker Hill fight ; The Spy shows us the Hudson River, 
and The Pilot treats of Paul Jones; while the Leather Stocking 
Talcs cover the Revolutionary period. (All published in Boston 
by Houghton.) 

Other stories of the Revolution are Mrs. Child's The Rebels 
(Boston, 1825); Brush's Paul and Persis (Boston: Lee & Shep- 
ard), with scenes in the Mohawk valley; Thompson's The Green 
Mountain Boys (Boston : Lee & Shepard), treating of Burgoyne's 
invasion ; Ogden's A Loyal Little Redcoat (N. Y. : Stokes), deal- 
ing with New York Tories ; and Miss Hoppus's A Great Treason 
(N. Y. : Macmillan), which gives us Arnold and Andre large as 
life. 

Bynner's Zachary Phips (Boston : Houghton), dealing with 
Burr's expedition and the War of 1812, is interesting, though far 
inferior to his other novels. 

Seawell's Little Jarvis refers to the cruises of the Constellation, 
1798-1800, and Midshipman Paulding to the War of 18 12 (both 
N. Y. : Appleton); and the latter subject is well handled in G. C. 
Eggleston's three stories, Signal Boys, Captain Sam, and Big 
Brother (all N. Y. : Putnam). In three stories by Edward Eggle- 



532 APPENDIX G. 

ston — The Circuit Rider and The Hoosier Schoolboy (N. Y. : Scrib- 
ner), and The Hoosier Schoolmaster (N. Y. : Judd) — we have fine 
descriptions of the early days of Indiana. 

Miss Murfree's The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains 
(Boston : Houghton) may be selected from her numerous and 
fascinating stories of life among the mountaineers of East Ten- 
nessee. 

Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom^s Cabin (Boston : Houghton) has been 
mentioned in the body of this history (§ 129). It has been trans- 
lated into more languages, perhaps, than any other book except 
the Bible. 

Among the stories of our Civil War may be mentioned Goss's 
Jed and Tom Clifton (N. Y. : Crowell) ; Henty's With Lee in Vir- 
ginia (N. Y. : Scribner) ; Page's Among the Camps, and Two 
Little Confederates (N. Y. : Scribner) ; and Mrs. Austin's Dora 
Darling, or the Datighter of the Regiment (Boston: Lee & Shep- 
ard). Trowbridge's Drummer Boy, Three Scouts, Neighbor Jack- 
wood, and Cudjo's Cave (Boston : Lee & Shepard) are also recom- 
mended. 

Patriotic and historical poems may be found in Browne's Bugle 
Echoes (N. Y. ; White, Stokes & Allen) ; Butterworth's Songs of 
History (Boston: New Eng. Pub. Co.); McCabe's Ballads of 
Battle and Bravery (N. Y. : Harper) ; White's Poetry of the Civil 
War (N. Y. : Amer. News Co.) ; Moore's Songs of the Soldiers, 
Lyrics of Loyalty, and Rebel Rhymes and Rhapsodies (N. Y. : 
Putnam). 

J5^"° In the foregoing bibliographical notes I have made no sort of pretense to 
completeness, but they are surely full enough for school purposes, or for the ordi- 
nary student. In the following Appendix G., Dr. Hill has obliged me by indi- 
cating his idea of a minimum reference library for schools. 



APPENDIX G. 

MINIMUM LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. 

BY FRANK A. HILL. 

The following books are recommended as a Minimum Library of 

Reference to bfc used in connection with Fiske's School History 

of the United States. 1 It is desirable that each school should have 

1 An advertisement of the Minimum Library will be found at the end of the book 



MINIMUM LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. 533 

a more generous list of reference books than this, and attention is 
called to the preceding bibliographical notes by Dr. Fiske (Appen- 
dix D, E, F,) from which excellent selections are possible. It has 
been thought wise to limit the topics for collateral reading to a list 
that should easily be within the reach of the average school, in the 
hope that a definite effort would be made to obtain it. Fiske's his- 
torical writings are included because it was out of them that this lit- 
tle School History grew. Parkman covers, in an accurate, brilliant, 
and readable way, the whole field of New France down to its final 
overthrow. Cooke presents to us the greatest of the southern colo- 
nies and one that has left as deep an impress upon our history as any 
of the thirteen. McMaster gives us graphic pictures of the life, the 
activities, and the controversies of the common people since the 
Revolution. And in the Old South Leaflets, pupils will find many 
old documents in very inexpensive form which may be studied with 
the same confidence that might be given to their rare originals. 

By John Fiske, — Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston: 
The Discovery of America, 2 vols. 
Old Virginia and her Neighbours, 2 vols. 
The Beginnings of New England. 
The American Revolution, 2 vols. 
The Critical Period of American History. 

By Francis Parkman, — Little, Brown & Co., Boston: 
The Pioneers of France in the New World. 
The Jesuits in North America. 
La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. 
The Old Regime in Canada. 

Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. 
A Half-Century of Conflict, 2 vols. 
Montcalm and Wolfe, 2 vols. 
The Conspiracy of Pontiac, 2 vols. 

By John Esten Cooke, — Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston: 

Virginia, — a History of the People. 
By John Bach McMaster, — D. Appleton & Co., New York City: 

History of the People of the United States (vols, i.-iv. ready). 

Old South Leaflets, edited by Edwin D. Mead, — Directors of the 
Old South Work, the Old South Meeting-House, Boston : 



534 APPENDIX H. 

No. ii. Lincoln's Inaugurals and Emancipation Proclamation. 

No. 17. Verrazzano's Voyage, 1524. 

No. 29. The Discovery of America, from the Life of Columbus 

by his son, Ferdinand Columbus. 
No. 30. Strabo's Introduction to Geography. 
No. 31. The Voyages to Vinland, from the Saga of Eric the Red. 
No. 32. Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java. 
No. 33. Columbus's Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the 

First Voyage and Discovery. . 
No. 34. Amerigo Vespucci's Account of his First Voyage. 
Also Nos. 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 51, 68, 69, the titles of which 

will be found in the Advertisement of the Minimum Library 

at the end of the book. 



APPENDIX H. 
THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 

In connection with the precise date of the discovery of America 
by Columbus (p. 28), I have been requested to explain waa*. is 
meant by Old Style and New Style, and I do so with pleasure. 
The subject seems for a moment to take us far away from America, 
but it is one which every student of history ought to understand, 
and its bearing upon American history is not without importance. 

Nature of the Problem. — The accurate arrangement of months 
and days in the year is not so easy as one might at first imagine. 
The ancients found it a very puzzling task, and it was never cor- 
rectly performed until just before the Christian era. 

The period of a day, from sunrise to sunrise, is easily understood ; 
but the period of a month, from new moon to new moon, is not 
quite so simple ; it requires careful observation to tell just how 
many days intervene between one new moon and the next. The 
period of a year presents much greater difficulties. We can see 
the daytime grow shorter until the weather grows colder, while the 
sun's daily path across the sky is steadily lowered toward the south ; 
then comes a change, and as the sun's path rises toward the zenith, 
the daytime slowly lengthens, and by and by the weather grows 
warmer. All this is easy to see, but it is not so easy to detect the 
very day of the sun's turning back, or to tell just how many days 
have intervened between the shortest day last winter and the short- 
est day this winter. It requires some skill in astronomy to do that; 
ordinary observation cannot do it. 



THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 535 

It was, therefore, difficult work to fit the months into the year. 
If a lunar month contained exactly four weeks, or 2S days, there 
would be thirteen such months in our year, and one day over. 
There are 52 weeks and one extra day in our solar year ; hence if 
any day of the month, such as the Fourth of July, or Christmas, 
comes upon Monday in any year, it will come upon Tuesday the 
next year, and so on (except in a leap-year, when the jump is 
from Monday to Wednesday, etc.). 

The Ancient Confusion. — At an early time the Greeks observed 
correctly that a lunar month contains about 29^ days, and so they 
tried to make a year consisting of twelve months, some with 29 days 
and some with 30. The same thing was tried by the Romans. The 
attempt resulted in a year of 355 days, which was rather more than 
ten days too short. It was soon observed that the annual festivals 
came around too soon. For example, the great May festival in 
honor of Ceres, goddess of agriculture, belonged in the season of 
blossoms, but coming ten days earlier every year it soon arrived 
in the season of frosts. To remedy this absurd inconvenience an 
extra month was now and then thrown in, and the confusion grew 
worse and worse. It became difficult to know when a specified 
date had occurred, or was going to occur, and in many business 
transactions this was a great annoyance. 

The Julian Calendar. — In the year B. c. 46, Julius Caesar under- 
took to put an end to this confusion, and very simply and skillfully 
he did it. Astronomers had found that the true length of the year 
is about 365^ days. So Caesar added ten days to the old-fashioned 
year, distributing them here and there, so as to make four months 
with 30 days and seven with 31, while he left February with 28. 
This made 365 days, and in order to provide for the fraction, Caesar 
directed that in every fourth year r.n extra day should be added to 
February, thus making what we call a leap-year. 

This arrangement, known as the Julian Calendar, ended the con- 
fusion, and it was more than a thousand years before any further 
correction was seen to be necessary. We are still using the Julian 
year as Caesar shaped it. But in his work there was one slight in- 
accuracy. The year does not contain exactly 365^ days, that is, 
365 days and 6 hours. The true length is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
minutes, and nearly 48 seconds. Caesar's year was thus 1 1 minutes 
and 12 seconds too long, and in adding an extra day in every leap- 
year he added 44 minutes and 48 seconds (that is nearly f of an 
hour) too much. In a century this excess amounted to more than 18 



536 APPENDIX H. 

hours, and in a thousand years it had grown to be about a week. 
In the time of Columbus all dates were 9 days too late, and some 
people had noticed that the winter days began to lengthen before 
Christmas arrived. 

The Gregorian Calendar. — In 1582, this error was corrected 
by Pope Gregory XIII. The correction was very simple. In the 
Julian Calendar all centurial years were leap-years. Gregory de- 
creed that henceforth only each fourth centurial year should be a 
leap-year. Thus the years 1600, 2000, 2400, etc., should have 366 
days, but 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc., should have only 365. Then 
Gregory took a fresh start by dropping out 10 days, so that the day 
after October 4, 1582, was reckoned and called October'15. Thus 
Gregory changed Old Style into New Style. The Gregorian 
Calendar is so nearly accurate that the remaining error will not 
amount to a day until about A. D. 5200; and this will probably 
be avoided by omitting February 29, A. D. 3600. 

The New Style was immediately adopted in Catholic countries, 
but its adoption by non-Catholic nations was retarded by silly preju- 
dice. The Protestant states of Germany adopted it in 1700, and 
England in 1752, by which time it had become necessary to drop 
out 11 days. Russia still uses Old Style, and the difference is now 
12 days, so that August 1 is in Russia called July 20. 

Times of Beginning the Year. — Another difference between 
Old Style and New Style relates to the beginning of the year. In 
old Roman usage March was the first month, so that September 
was really the seventh month, October the eighth, etc., etc. Julius 
Caesar decreed that his reform should go into operation with the 
first new moon after the winter solstice (shortest day) of B. c. 46. 
That new moon came on January 1, b. c. 45, and thus started the 
New Year. Caesar's work in reforming the calendar was commem- 
orated by naming the midsummer month Julius ; and the next month 
was afterward named for his successor, Augustus. 

The practice of beginning the year with January, however, did 
not prevail. In the Middle Ages it sometimes began with Christ- 
mas, but more often with March 25 ; and this latter was the practice 
in England and the American colonies until 1752. The restoration 
of January 1 as New Year's day was part of the reform which we 
owe to Pope Gregory XIII. 

Application to American History. — All dates in American 
history before 1752 are commonly given in Old Style, except in a 
few cases where the date has been rectified for use in public anni- 



THE CALENDAR, AND THE RECKONING OF DATES. 537 

versaries. For example, George Washington was born February 
II, 1731, o. S., and this we have very properly amended into Febru- 
ary 22, 1732, N. s. Neglect of the differences between Old Style 
and New Style has sometimes betrayed historians into great and 
strangely complicated blunders. Several difficulties in the life of 
Columbus, by which scholars have been hopelessly baffled, had 
their origin solely in forgetfulness of the differences in reckoning 
time, and have at length been cleared up in my Discovery of 
America (as, e. g., vol. i. pp. 402-407). 

In this School History I have given days and months previous to 
1752 in Old Style (except the three Mayflower dates on page 89); 
but when I mention years they are always to be understood as be- 
ginning with January 1. Here let me mention a curious error in 
the date of the landing of the Pilgrims, as very often given. The 
date was December 11, o. S. When Plymouth people began in 
1769 to celebrate the anniversary they carelessly added 11 days and 
thus made it December 22, N. s. They should have added only 10 
days, which would give the true date, December 21, n. s. 

I have been asked why I do not translate all dates whatever 
into New Style (as, e. g., on page 30, why not give July 3 instead 
of June 24 as the date of Cabot's landfall, etc., etc.). Such an in- 
novation upon the general custom of historians would be attended 
with many inconveniences, of which I will mention only one speci- 
men. The principal ship of Columbus, called the Santa Maria, 
was wrecked on the coast of Hayti, December 25, 1492, o. s., which 
was of course the day celebrated by all Christendom as Christmas. 
Now if the date were given in New Style, would it seem just right 
to say that this wreck occurred on Christmas Day, January 3, 1493 ? 
Would not such a statement require just as much explanation as 
our present practice ? It is well to simplify things as much as pos- 
sible, but this world was not so put together as to save us the 
trouble of using our wits. 

Standard Time in the United States and Canada. — This 
subject has nothing to do with the calendar, but a few words on it 
here may be useful. The establishment of standard time is an 
event in our history worth remembering. Since the earth rotates 
upon its axis in 24 hours, while its circumference contains 360 de- 
grees of longitude, it follows that each hour corresponds to ^j° = 
1 5 degrees. At any point the sun rises one hour earlier than at a 
point 15 degrees further west. At any point it rises f$ = 4 minutes 
earlier than at a point one degree further west. For example, the 



538 APPENDIX H. 

meridian of Boston is about 3 degrees east of the meridian of New 
York, and local time in Boston is about 12 minutes faster than in 
New York. These differences in local time are innumerable, and 
were found to be very inconvenient for persons using railroads. In 
almost every town it used to be necessary to remember that " rail- 
road time " was not the same as the time indicated on the town 
clock. In 1883, this inconvenience was remedied by the adoption 
of " standard time." The whole country was divided into four sec- 
tions (see map inside front cover), each 15 degrees of longitude in 
breadth. All places in each section use the time of the meridian 
running through the centre of the section. When you pass from 
one section into the next, the time becomes one hour slower if you 
are moving westward, one hour faster if you are moving eastward. 
Eastern time is that of the 75th meridian, Central time that of the 
90th, Mountain time that of the 105th, Pacific time that of the 120th. 
When it is noon at all places in the Eastern section, it is 11 A. M. 
at all places in the Central section, 10 A. m. at all places in the 
Mountain section, and 9 A. M. at all places in the Pacific section. 
This neat and simple system is now in use all over the United 
States and the Dominion of Canada. 

The system is exhibited on the map inside the front cover of this 
book, where the Eastern and Mountain sections are colored green, 
while the Central and Pacific sections are contrasted in yellow. 
From various considerations of railroad convenience the bounda- 
ries of the sections are in some places quite irregular. In reckon- 
ing longitude the meridian of Greenwich (in London) is usually 
adopted as the starting point ; and our map shows how noon in 
London is 7 A. M. in our Eastern section, etc. It is to be hoped 
that this system of standard time will be adopted in all countries. 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Key to the marks : fate, lat, father, fall, care ; theme, yet, her ; 
pine, pin ; bone, not, orb ; moon, foot ; tune, but, burr. 

Observe also the obscure vowels, a (as in Durham), e (as in Jeru- 
salem), 6 (as in Burton). These vowels a, e, 6 occur in unaccented 
syllables ; they are much shorter than a, e, 6 ; they sound very 
much like one another, and not altogether unlike u, though shorter 
and less definite. 

Observe that th has two different sounds, in thin and this; the 
latter is here indicated by dh. Gh is hard, as in ghost. 

The French sounds ii, N, r, and the German ch (equivalent to 
Spanish x and j) can only be learned by careful practice after hear- 
ing them spoken. 

Spaniards always lisp z and also c when followed by e or i; and 
they never buzz the final s as we do. For example, Cespedes is 
pronounced thas'pe-das. The Spanish n always sounds ny. For 
example, canon is pronounced can-yon' ; we call it can'yon. 



Abenaki, ab'na-kl 
Acadia, a-ka'di-a 
Aix la Chapelle, aks la sha-pel' 
Alamon — Span., a-la-mon' 
Albemarle, al'be-marl 
Aleutian, a-lu'shi-an 
Algiers, al-jerz' 
Algonquin, al-gon'kln 
Alleghanies, al'e-ga-nez 
Americus Vespucius, a-mer'I-cfls 

ves-pu'shus 
Amerigo Vespucci, a-ma-re'gS 

ves-poot'che 
Andre, an'dra 
Andros, an'dros 
Annapolis, an-nap'6-lls 
Antic tarn, an-te'tam 
Apache, a-patch'I 
A quia, a'kwT-a 
Aquidneck, a-kwld'nek 
Araucauians, a-ro-ca'ni-anz 
Aristotle, ar'Is-totl 
Arizona, ar-I-zo'na 



Arkansas, ar'kan-sa 
Armada, ar-ma'da 
Ashburton, ash' bur-ton 
Athabascan, ath-a-bas'kan 
Ay lion, Il-yon' 

Bahama, ba-ha'ma 

Balboa, bal-bo'a 

Banastre Tarleton, ban'as-ter 

tarl'ton 
Bandelier, ban-de-ler / 
Barbary, bar'ba-ri 
Beauregard, bo'ri-gard 
Bellomont, bel'6-mont 
Bering, ba'ring 
Bibliotheque de Rouen — French, 

bib-li-6-tak' de roo-oN' 
Bienville — French, bl-ox-vel' 
Birmingham, ber'mlng-am 
Bimey, bur'nl 
Bon Homme Richard — French, 

bon-6m-re-shar / 
Bonnechose — French, bon-shoz' 



540 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Bouquet, boo-ka' 

Bowling Green, bS'ling gren 

Brazil, bra-zil' 

Breckinridge, brek'in-rlj 

Breton, bret'on 

Brittany, brit'a-ni 

Broke, brook 

Buchanan, boo-kan'an 

Buell, bu'el 

Buena Vista, bwa'na vis'ta 

Buenos Ayres, bwa'nos I'res 

Burgoyne, bur-goin' or bur-gwin' 

Cabeza de Vaca, ca-ba'za {Span. 

ca-ba'tha) da va'ka 
Cabot, cab'ot 
Cabral, ca-bral' 
Cadiz, ca'diz or ca'dlz (Span. 

ca'deth) 
Cahokia, ca-ho'ki-a 
Calhoun, cal-hoon' 
Canonchet, ca-non'tchet 
Canonicus, ca-non'i-cus 
Caribbean, car-i-be'an 
Carteret, car'te-ret 
Cartier, car-tya' 
Catawba, ca-ta'ba 
Cecilius Calvert, se-sil'i-us cal'- 

vert 
Champlain, sham-plan' 
Charlevoix — French, sharl-vwa' 
Chattanooga, tchat-a-noo'ga 
Cherokee, tcher-6-ke' 
Chesapeake, tches'a-pek 
Chicago, shi-ka'go 
Chickaho?niny, tchik-a-hom'i-ni 
Chickamauga, tchik-a-ma'ga 
Chili, tche'li 
Chipango, tchi-pan'go 
Chippewa, tchip'e-wa 
Cibola, se'bo-la {Span, the'bo-la) 
Claiborne, cla'born 
Claudius Ptolemy, clau'di-us tol'- 

e-mi 
Coligny, co-len-ye' 
Comte — French, coNt 
Connectiait, con-et'i-ciit 
Comwallis, cSm-wal'Is 
Coronado, cor-o-na'do 



Cotesworth, cots'worth 
Coureurs de Bois — French, coo- 

rer' de bwa' 
Credit Mobilier, cred'it mo-bil'- 

yer (French, cra-de' mo-be-ya') 
Crevecoeur, crav-ker / 
Cristoforo Colombo, cris-to'fo-ro 

co-lom'bo 
Cristoval Colon, crls-to'val co-Ion' 
Culpeper, cul'pe-per 
Cyane, si-an' 

Dearborn, der'bon or der'burn 
Decatur, de-ca'tur 
Delftshaven, delfts'ha-ven 
Detroit, de-troit' 
Dinwiddle, din-wid'I 
Dominique de Gourgues, do-mi- 

nek' de goorg' 
Donelson, don'el-son 
Duplesses — French, dii-ple-se' 
Dtiquesne, ddo-kan' 
Durham, dur'am 
Du Simitilre — French, dti se- 

mi-tyar / 

Eau Claire, 6 klar' 

Eric, er'ik 

Ericsson, er'ik-son 

Estevan Gomez, es-te-van' go' 

mez 
Eutaw, u'ta 

Faneuil, fiin'el 
Farragut, far'a-gut 
Ferdinand, feVdl-nand 
Ferdinando Gorges, f er-dl-nan'do 

gQr'jes 
Flamborough, flam'bo-ro 
Fremont, fre-mont' 
Frobisher, frob'ish-er 
Frontenac, fron-te-nak' 
Fulton, fool'ton 

Genet, zhe-na' 
Genoa, jen'6-wa 
Ghent, ghent 
Gillespie, ghil-es'pl 
Gosnold, goz'nold 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



541 



Graffenried, graf'en-red 
Guerriere — French, gher-rl-arr' 
Guiana, ghi-a'na 
Guinea, ghin'I 

Hackensack, hak'en-sak 
Haverhill, ha/ve-rll 
Hayti, ha'tl 
Herkimer, her'kl-mer 
Hesse Cassel, hes'e ca'sel 
Hiawatha, he-a-wath'a, or hl-a- 

wath'a 
Hindustan, htn-doo-stan' 
Hofiduras, hon-doo'ras 
Huguenot, hu'ghe-not 

Iberville, e-ber-vel' 
Idaho, I'da-ho 
Illinois, Il-I-noi' 
Indiana, In-dl-a'na 
Ingoldsby, In'golz-bl 
Iowa, i'6-wa 
Iroquois, fr'6-kwa 
luka, 1-00'ka 

Jacqttes — French, zhak 
yanauschek, yan'ow-shek 
Jean Ribault, zhaN' re-bo' 
yogties — French, zhogh 
yoliet, zho-lya' 
yuan Ponce de Leon — Span., 

hwan pon'tha. da la-6n' {often 

called pons' de le'on) 

Kaskaskia, kas-kas'kl-a 
Kearney, kar'ni 
Kearsarge, ker'sarj 
Kenesaw, ken'e-sa 
Kennebec, ken-e-bek' 
Kosciuszko — Polish, kosh- 

tchoos'ko, often called kos-sl- 

us'kS 

Labrador, lab'ra-dor 
Lac Qui Parle, lak ke pari' 
La Farge, la farj' 
Lafayette, la-fa-yet' 
Landgrave, land'grav 
La Plata, la pla'ta 



La Salle, la sal' 

Las Casas, las ca'sas 

La Vengeance — French, la von- 

zh6Ns' 
Le Bozuf, le bef' 
Leif, lif 
Leisler, Hs'ler 
Lenape, len-a-pa' 
Lery, le-re' 
Levant, le-vanr/ 
Leyden, li'den 
L'Insurgente — French, laN-siir'- 

zhoNf 
Lopez, lo'pez 
Louisburg, loo'Is-burg 
Louisiana, loo-e-zl-a'na 

Macdonough, mac-don'6 

Macomb, ma-coom' 

Madeira, ma-da'ra 

Madras, ma-dras' 

Madrid, ma-drld' 

Magellan, maj-e-lan' or ma-jel'an 

Mahometan, ma-hom'e-tan 

Manassas, ma-nas'as 

Maracaibo, ma-ra-kl'bo 

Marcos de Nizza, mar'kos da 

nit'sa 
Marqjiette, mar-ket' 
Maryland, mer'Mand 
Maskoki, mas-ko'kt 
Massasoit, mas-a-soit' 
Matagorda, mat-a-gor'da 
Maximilian, max-i-mil'yan 
Mayas, ma'yaz 
McCrea, ma-cra' 
Mediterratiean, med-I-ter-a'ne-an 
Mejico — Span., ma'CHe-co 
Menendez, ma-nen'dez 
Miantonomo, ml-an-to-no'mo 
Michigan, mlsh'I-gan 
Minuit, mln'oo-it 
Mobile, mo-bel' 
Modocs, mo'docs 
Mohegans, mo-he'ganz 
Mohican, mo-hlk'an 
Monsieur — French, moN-sIeV 
Montana, mon-ta'na 
Montcalm, mont-kam' 



542 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



Montfort, mSnt'fort 
Montreal, mon-trl-al' 
Moqui, mo'ke 
Morocco, mo-rok'6 
Moultrie, mool'trl or moo'trl 

Narragansett, nar-a-gan'set 
Naumkeag, nam-keg' 
Nauvoo, na-voo' 
Navarrete, na-var-ra'ta 
Newfoundland, noo'fund-land 
Nicaragua, nlk-a-ra'gwa 
Nipmtccks, nlp'muks 
Norridgewock, nor'ij-wuk 
Nottinghamshire, not ' mg - era - 

sher 
Nueces, noo-a'sgz (Span, noo-a/- 

thas) 

Ogallala, o-ga-la'la 
Oglethorpe, ogl'thcirp 
Ojibwas, 6-jib'waz 
Oklahoma, o-kla-ho'ma 
Oneida, 6-ni'da 
Oregon, or'e-gon 
Oriskany, or-is'kan-J 
Ostend, os-tend' 
Oswego, 6s-we'go 
Ottawas, ot'a-waz 

Pakenham, pak'e-nem 

Palatinate, pa-la.t'1-nat 

Palo Alto, pa'lo al'to 

Palos, pa'los 

Panfilo de Narvaez, pan'fl-lo da 

nar-va'ez 
Paraguay, pa-ra-gwl' 
Peirce, purs 
Pemaquid, pem'a-kwld 
Pep per ell, pep'e-rel 
Pernambicco, per-nam-boo'k5 
Philippine, fll'I-pen 
Phips, fipz 
Pierce, purs 
Pinzon, pin-zSn' {Span., pTn- 

thon') 
Pisa, pe'za 

Piscataqua, pls-cat'a-kwa 
Platte, plat 



Plymouth, pllm'oth 

Poe, po 

Pomponius Mela, pSm-po'nl-Qs 

ma' la 
Pontiac, pon'tl-ak 
Porto Seguro, por'to se-goo'r5 
Potomac, po-to'mac 
Potosi, po-to-se' 
Pottawatomies, pot-a-wot'6-mlz 
Poutrincourt, poo-traN-koor / 
Powhatan, pow-ha-tan' 
Prairie du Chien, pra-rl doo 

shen' 
Preble, prebl 
Presque Isle, prSs kel' 
Prussia, prush'a 
Pueblos, pwa'bloz 
Pulaski, poo-las' kl 
Pynchon, pm'tchon 

Quebec, kwe-bek' 

Raleigh, ra'li 
Rapidan, rap-I-dan' 
Rigime — French, ra-zhem' 
Resaca de la Pahna, ra-sa'ka da. 

la pal'ma 
Revere, re-ver / 
Rio Grande, re'o gran'de 
Roanoke, ro'a-nok 
Rochambeau, ro-sham-bo' 
Rosecrans, ro'ze-kranz 
Russia, rush' a 
Rutherfurd, rudh'er-furd 
Ryswick, rlz'wlk 

St. Augustine, sant au'gus-ten 
Saint Esprit, saNt es-pre' 
St. Leger, sant lej'er 
Sanchez, san'tchez (Span, san'- 

tchath) 
San Jacinto, san ja-sm'to 
San Miguel, san mt-geT 
San Roque, san ro'ka 
Saratoga, sar-a-to'ga 
Sarum, sa'rum 
Sault Sainte Marie, soo sant 

ma-re' 
Schenectady, ske-nek'ta-di 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 



543 



Schofield. sko'feld 
Schuyler, ski'ler 
Schuylkill, skool'kll 
Sebastian, se-bas'tl-an 
Seminole, sem-I-no'le 
Senecas, sen'e-kaz 
Seward, soo'ward 
Seymour, se'mer 
Shackamaxon, shak-a-mak'son 
Shenandoah, shen-an-do'a 
Shiloh, shi'lo 
Sic semper tyrannis — Latin, sTc 

sem'per tl-ran'Is 
Sieur de Monts, sler de mSN' 
Sieur de Roberval, sler de ro-ber- 

val' 
Sigel, se'ghel 
Sioux, sod 
Slidell, sli-del' 
Sloughter, slo'ter 
Somers, sum'erz 
Stanton, stan'ton 
Staten, stat'en 
Steuben, shtoi'ben 
Stuyvesant, sti've-sant 

Tallapoosa, tal-a-poo'sa 
Talleyrand, tal'e-rand {French 

ta-la-roN') 
Tarratines, tar'a-tenz 
Tecumseh, te-kum'ze 
Tennessee, ten-e-se' 
Terra de Pascua Florida, tSr'ra 

da pas'kwa flor-e'da 
Thames, temz 
Thorfinn Karlsefni, tor'fin karl- 

sef'nt 
Tico7ideroga, tl-kon-de-ro'ga 
Tippecanoe, ttp-e-ka-noo' 
Toledo, to-Ie'do 
Tonfy, ton-te' 
Toscanelli, tos-ka-nel'li 
Towns/tend, town'zend 



Tretnont, tre-mfinf 
Trimountain, trl-moun'ten 
Tripoli, trlp'6-ll 
Tuscarora, tus-ka-ro'ra 

Ulysses, yoo-lis'ez 
Uruguay, oo-re-gwl' 
Utj-echt, oo'treCHt 
Uxmal, ooks'mal (Span. doCH- 
mal') 

Valcour, val-koor 7 

Valladolid, val-ya-do-led' 

Valparaiso, val-pa-ri'zo 

Vancouver, van-koo'ver 

Vasco da Gama, vas'ko da ga'ma 

Vasquez cPAyllon, vas'kez dH- 
yon' 

Vassall, vas'al 

Venango, ve-nan'go 

Venezuela, ven-e-zwa'la 

Vera Cruz, va'ra krooz 

Veragua, ve-ra'gwa 

Verrazano, var-ra-tsa'no 

Vincennes, vln-senz' 

Vincente Yahez Pinzon, vin-sen'- 
te yan'yez pin'zon (Span., vln- 
than'ta yan'yath pin-thon') 

Vitus Bering, ve'toos ba'rlng 

Wabash, wa'bash 
IValdseemuller, valf sa-miil-er 
Wampanoag, wam'pa-nog 
Warwick, war'ik 
Wayne, wan 
Wyoming, wi-5'mrng 

Yemassee, yem-a-se' 
Yucatan, yoo-ka-tan' 

Zachariah, zak-a-ri'a 
Zachary, zak'a-rl 
Zuhi, zoo'nye 



INDEX. 



Abenakis, 167. 

Abercrombie, Gen., 173. 

Abolitionists, 331, 35°>.355> 35 6 - 

Acadia, map of, 165; inhabitants removed 
from their homes, 170. 

Adams, C. F., 338, 440. 

Adams, John, 210, 247, 274-278 ; portrait, 
276. 

Adams, J. Q., 286, 312, 396; portrait, 312; 
presidency, 313-316; in House of Repre- 
sentatives, 331. 

Adams, Samuel, 190, 195, 199, 201, 204 ; 
portrait, 190. 

Adobe fortresses, 10. 

Africa, circumnavigation of, 23, 24. 

Agassiz, Louis, 484, 486 ; portrait, 484. 

Agriculture, Indian, 5. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 167. 

Alabama, added to the Union, 309. 

Alabama claims, 438. 

Alabama, cruiser, 381 ; sunk by the Kear- 
sarge, 417. 

Alaska, 307 ; bought from Russia, 436. 

" Albany Plan,"' 188. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 489. 

Alert, British sloop, captured by the Es- 
sex, 289. 

Alexander, Archer, story of, 397. 

Alexander VI., Pope, 32. 

Algonquins, 8, 21, 54, 102, 175. 

Alien and sedition laws, 277. 

Allen, Ethan, 205. 

Allston, Washington, 491. 

Alpaca, 13. 

Amazon River, discovery of, 32. 

Amendments to the Constitution, I. to 

XII., 512, sn; xiil., 434; XIV., 434; 

XV., 439. 
America supposed to be Asia, 2, 59; why 

so named, 34. 
American Horse, portrait of, 2. 
American party, 358. 
Americus Vespucius, 30-35 ; portrait, 33. 
Anaesthetics, discovery of, 486. 
Ancestor worship, 7. 
Anderson, Maj. Robert, 372. 
Andre, John, capture and execution, 238; 

portrait, 238. 
Andros, Sir E., 113-116, 134, 135, 190, 202, 

203 ; portrait, 113. 
Annapolis Convention, 252. 



Anthracite coai, 324. 

Antietam, battle of, 394 ; picture of bridge 

over the, 393. 
Anti-Mason party, 319. 
" Anti-Nebraska Men," 356. 
Anti-Renters, 329. 
Apaches, 3, 10. 
Apollo Room in Raleigh Tavern, picture 

of, 197. 
Appomattox Court House, picture of, 419 ; 

Lee's surrender at, 419. 
Aquia Creek, 391. 

Aquidneck, bought by Mrs. Hutchinson, 99. 
Arab voyages, 19. 
Araucanians, 40. 
Arbitration between Great Britain and 

United States, 438. 
Architecture in America, 493- 
Arctic Ocean, 62. 
Aristocratic government, 101. 
Aristotle, 25. 
Arizona, 10. 

Arkansas admitted to Union, 330. 
Arlington, Lord, 76. 

Armada, the Invincible, defeat of, 60, 61. 
Army, regular, size of, 433. 
Arnold, Benedict, General, 205, 208, 209, 

217, 227-230; portrait, 237; his treason, 

2 37i 2 3^ ; his capture of New London, 

241. 
Arnold, Benedict, Governor of Rhode 

Island, his windmill, 21. 
Arthur, C. A., portrait, 447. 
Art in America, 490-492. 
Ashburton treaty, 329. 
Assumption of state debts, 268. 
Athabaskans, 3. 
Atlanta, capture of, 417. 
Audubon, 486. 
Austin, Moses, 333. 
Australian Ballot, 458. 
Ayllon, Vasquez d', 42, 43. 
Aztec Confederacy, 11. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, his rebellion, 77. 
Bainbridge, Captain, 291. 
Balboa, 35. 
Ball, Thos., 491. 
Baltimore, city of, 129. 
Baltimore, first Lord, portrait, 125 ; second 
Lord, portrait, 127. 



546 



INDEX. 



Bandelier, Adolf, 490. 

Bank of United States, 315, 320, 321, 328. 

Banks, N. P., 389- 

Banks, state, 320. 

Bannocks, 3. 

Barbarous Indians, picture of, 3. 

Barbary States, 283, 284. 

Barclay, Captain, 294. 

Battery and Bowling Green, New York, in 
1776, picture of, 217. 

Beacon Hill, 97. 

Beauregard, G. T., 372, 379. 

Bell, Alexander Graham, 478. 

Bell, John, 364. 

Bellomont, Earl of, 137. 

Bennington, battle of, 225. 

Benton, T. H., his portrait, 321. 

Bering Sea Trouble, 460. 

Bering, Vitus, 37. 

Berkeley, Lord, 137. 

Berkeley, Sir W., 75-78, 116, 190; auto- 
graph, 75. 

Bienville, 167. 

Bierstadt, A., 491:. 

Big Black River, 403. 

Biglow Papers, 437. 

Bir,.ey, James, 327, 334. 

" Black Republicans," 356. 

Blaine, J. G., 450. 

Blair, F P., portrait, 376. 

Bland silver bill, 445, 446-' 

Blockade of southern coast, 370, 373, 386. 

Blockhouse, picture of, 163. 

Bond, G. P., 485. 

Bond, W. C.,485. 

Bonds, U. S., 409. 

Books most commonly read in 18th. century, 
263. 

Boone, Daniel, 233. 

Booth, Edwin, 493. 

Booth, J. W., 421. 

Border states in Civil War, 375-377. 

Boroughs in Old Virginia, 72. 

Boroughs, "rotten," 193. 

Boston and vicinity in 1775, map of, 204. 

Boston, founding of, 93. 

Boston in 1790, picture, 262. 

Boston Massacve, 198, 199. 

B' ston Tea Party, 200-203. 

Botanical Gardens, 485- 

Bouquet, Henry, 776. 

Bowditch, Nathaniel, 486. 

Braddock's defeat, 170. 

Bradford. William, 89. 

Bragg, Braxton, 398, 415, 417. 

Brandywine, battle of, 229. 

Brant, Joseph, portrait and autograph, 226. 

Brazil, discovery of, 33-35. 

Breckinridge, John, 364. 

Brewster, William, 89. 

Brinton, D. G., 490. 

Broke, Sir Philip, 291. 

Bronze implements, 12. 
Brooklyn Heights, 218. 

Brooks, Phillips, portrait, 488. 

Brooks, Preston, 357. 

Brown, Brockden, 489. 
Brown, Jacob, 295. 

Brown, John, 363. 



Brown, Robert, 87. 

Bryan, William J., 462. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 333. 

Buchanan, J., 358, 371; presidency, 358, 
367, 37i> 3-72 ! portrait, 359. 

Buckner, Simon B., 463. 

Buell, D. C, 384, 386, 398. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 336. 

Bull Run, first battle of, 379 ; second bat- 
tle of, 391. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 206. 

Burgesses, House of, 72. 

Burgoyne, John, 223-228 ; his surrender, 
230 ; portrait, 224. 

Burgoyne's Campaign, map, 229. 

Burke, Edmund, 194. 

Burlingame, Anson, 454. 

Burns, Anthony, 352. 

Burnside, A., 394, 404. 

Burr, Aaron, 278, 284. 

Bushy Run, battle of, 176. 

Butler, Gen. B. F., 394, 395. 

Cable cars, 479. 

Cable, Geo. W., 489. 

Cabot, John, 30, 50, 59. 

Cabot, Sebastian, 30. 

Cabral, 33. 

Cahokia, 111., 167, 

Calendar, and reckoning of dates, 534. 

Calendar, Julian and Gregorian, 535, 536. 

Calhoun, J. C, 317, 350; portrait, 3 18. 

California, discovery of gold in, 336 ; ad- 
mitted to Union, 337, 348. 

Calvert. See Baltimore. 

Cambridge, Mass., 101. 

Camden, battle of, 235. 

Canada conquered by English, 175; in- 
vaded by Americans, 208, 209. 

Canal with locks, picture, 313. 

Canonchet, in. 

Canonicus, 90. 

Cape Breton, 50. 

Cape Breton Island, 30, 167. 

Cape Cod, 85. 

Cape Verde Isiand, 32. 

Capital, established at Washington, 270. 

Capitol at Washington, picture, 279. 

Carleton, Sir Guy, 208, 209, 217. 

Carolinas, the founding of, 147-150. 

" Carpet bag governments," 434, 435, 439. 

Carr, Dabney, 200. 

Carteret, Sir G., 137. 

Cartier, Jacques, 51. 

Carver, John, 89. 

Cass, Lewis, 337. 

Catholics in Maryland, 127, 128. 

Catawbas, 150. 

Cavaliers in Virginia, 76. 

Cavendish, Sir T., 62. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 146, 415. 

Cemetery Ridge, 405. 

Centennial anniversaries, 441. 

Central field of war in the Revolution, map 

Of, 221. 

Champion's Hill, battle of, 403. 
Champlain, 53-55) '59 ; portrait, 53. 
Chancellorsville, battle of, 404. 
Chandler, Z., 444. 



index. 



547 



Charles I., king of Great Britain, 74, gi, 97, 

189. 
Charles II., king of Great Britain, 75, 108- 

110, 112, 113. 
Charles River, 86. 
Charleston, S. C, attacked by French and 

Spaniards, 166 ; captured by the British, 

235- 
Charlestown, Mass., settlement of, 93. 
Charter Oak, 114. 
Chase, S. P., 350, 435. 
Chattanooga, battle of, 415. 
Cherokees, 8, 150. 
Chesapeake Bay, 31. 
Chesapeake, frigate, searched by Leopard, 

285 ; captured by Shannon, 292. 
Chicago in 1832, view of, 325. 
Chickahominy River, 390. 
Chickamauga, battle of, 414. 
Chickasaws, 8. 
Child, Francis J., 490. 
Chili, 10, 40. 
Chili, trouble with, 457. 
Chinese immigration, 454, 455. 
Chinese junks, 19. 
t hipango, or Japan, 26-31. 
Chippewa, battle of, 295. 
Chippewas, 9. 
Choctaws, 8. 

Christison, Wenlock, 10S. 
Church, 487. 

Circumnavigation of globe, first, 36. 
Cities, population of, 262. 
Cities, tendency to concentrate in, 479, 480. 
Civil Rights Bill, 434. 
Civil service reform, 449. 
Civil War, condilions of, 367-420 ; cost of, 

409 ; map of, 385. 
Claiborne, William, 127. 
Clans and tribes, Indian, 7. 
(_lark, Alvan, 485. 
Clark, George Rogers, his conquest of the 

Northwest, 234; map, 233. 
Clark, William, expedition with Lewis, 283. 
Clay, Henry, 288, 311, 312, 320,328,344, 

350 ; portrait, 31S. 
Clemens, Samuel, " Mark Twain," 489. 
Clermont, the steamboat, picture of, 30S. 
Cleveland, Grover, 1, 451-455, 459-462 ; por- 
trait, 451. 
Cliff dwellers, 10. 
Clinton, De Witt, 289. 
Clinton, George, 284. 

Clinton, Sir H., 210, 231-233, 235, 237, 240. 
Coddington, William, 99. 
Cold Harbor, battle of, 415. 
Coligny, 51, 63. 
Colonies, old-fashioned method of treating 

them, 181; trade laws restricting, 181, 

182. 
Columbia, British, 330. 
Columbia River, discovery of, 283. 
Columbus, Christopher, 25-30, 70; his 

ships, 28 ; portrait, 29. 
Committees of correspondence, 200. 
Commons, House of, 72, 189, 192-195. 
Communism among Virginia settlers, 69, 70. 
Compromises of 1850, 34S, 349. 
Compromise Tariff, 320. 



Compromise, the Crittenden, 366. 

Concord, battle of, 204, 205. 

Confederate capital, 375. 

Confederate money and bonds, 413. 

Confederate states of America, 366. 

Confederation, Articles of, 247, 253. 

Confederation of New England, 107. 

Congress, Albany, 187. 

Congress, Continental, 200, 203-205, 20S- 
211, 220, 227, 228, 237; had no power to 
tax the people, 235, 247. 

Congress, representation in, 192. 

Congress, Stamp Act, 191. 

Congress, the war-ship, 382. 

Congresses, Provincial, 200, 204. 

Connecticut, beginnings of, 100-102. 

Connecticut River, discovery of, 43. 

Constellation, frigate, 276, 277. 

Constitution, frigate, 289, 292 ; captures 
Guerriere, 289 ; captures Java, 291 ; 
captures Cyane and Levant, 292 ; picture 
of, 290. 

Constitution of the United States adopted, 
256 ; 13th amendment to, 434 ; 15th amend- 
ment to, 439 ; full text of, 499-516. 

Constitutional union party, 364. 

Continental Congress at Philadelphia, 
Sept., 1774, 203. 
Contraband of war," 395. 

Convention for nominating president, 319. 

Convention, the Federal, 253. 

Convention, the Hartford, 296, 306. 

Conway Cabal, 231. 

Cook, James, 283. 

Cooke, John Esten, 489. 

Cooper, J. F., his Indian stories, 17. 

Cope, Edward, 486. 

Copley, John Singleton, 490, 491 ; portrait, 

_,49'- 

Copperheads, 370. 

Corey, Giles, 165. 

Corinth, battle of, 398. 

Cornwallis, Lord, 222, 235, 239-241 ; por- 
trait, 222 , surrender at Yorktown, 241. 

Coronado, F. de, 44. 

Cotton, demand for, 310, 370; field, pic- 
ture of, 267 ; plant, 266. 

" Counterblast against tobacco," 70. 

Court of Honor, Columbian Fair, picture, 

_ 495' , . 

Cowpens, battle ot the, 239. 

" Cradle of Liberty," 198. 

Cranch, C. P., 489. 

Crawford, Thomas, 491. 

Crawford, William, 312. 

" Credit Mobilier," 442. 

Creeks, 8, 295. 

Crittenden, John Jordan, 366 ; his sons, 

377- 
Cromwell, Oliver, 107, 127 ; portrait, 75. 
Cropsey, J. F.,491. 

Crown Point, taken by Ethan Allen, 205. 
Crusades, 22. 
Cuba, 174; southern attempts to capture, 

354; rebellion against Spain, 465. 
Culpeper, Lord, 76. 
Cnlp"s Hill, 407. 
Cumberland, Army of the, 384. 
Cumberland Gap, 37;. 



548 



INDEX. 



Cumberland, the war-ship, 382. 
Currency, 459. 
Cushing, Caleb, 454. 
Cushing, F. H., 490. 
Cushman, Charlotte, 493. 
Custer, G., defeated by the Sioux, 442. 
Cuttyhunk, house built by Gosnold on, 85. 
Cyane, 'British frigate, captured by the 
Constitution, 292. 

Dakotas become states, 455. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 69, 70. 

Dallas, battle of, 417. 

Dana, J. D., 486. 

Dare, Virginia, first American child of Eng- 
lish parents, 63. ■ 

" Dark horse," 334, 349. 

Davenport, John, 104, 109. 

Davis, David, 445. 

Davis, J., 350, 366; capture of, 420; por- 
trait, 365. 

Decatur, Stephen, 290. 

Decimal Currency, 280. 

Declaration of Independence, 210, 216. 

Dedham, furniture made at, 263. 

Deerfield, Mass., 165. 

Delaware, Lord, 69. 

Delaware River, discovery of, 43. 

Democratic government, 101. 

Democratic party, 315 ; division of, 462, 

463- 
Democratic-Republican party, 274, 315. 

Detroit, 273 ; surrender of, 293. 

Dighton Rock, inscription, 21. 

Dingley tariff, 464. 

Dinwiddie, Robert, 168. 

Domesticated animals, 7. 

Dorchester, settlement of, 93. 

Dorchester Heights, occupied by General 
Washington, 209. 

Dorr's Rebellion, 328. 

Douglas, S. A., 354, 3ss, 361-364, 366; por- 
trait, 355. 

Drafting, and Draft Riots, 413. 

Drainage, area of discovery limited by, 
158. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 60. 

Draper, Henry, 485. 

Draper, John William, 485. 

Dred Scott case, 360, 361. 

Dudley, Joseph, 113. 

Dunmore, Lord, driven from Virginia, 209. 

Durand, A. B., 491. 

Durham, N. H., 162. 

Dustin, Hannah, 163, 164. 

Dutch in Connecticut, 100 ; in New Neth- 
erland, 129-134. 

Early, J., 415. 

Early period of American history, 160. 

Easter, land of, 42. 

Education in Mass. Bay Colony, 95. 

Edwards, Jonathan, 488. 

Elastic Clause of our Constitution, 269,282, 

316. 
Election of President, 274, 278, 319. 
Electoral Commission, 445. 
Electricity, application of, 477, 479. 
Electric railroads, 479. 



Eliot, John, the apostle, no. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, 59, 64, 86, 87, 
309 ; autograph, 64. 

Emancipation Group, picture of, 397. 

Emancipation of slaves, 394-397. 

Embargo act, 285, 286. 

Emerson, R. W., 437; portrait, 332. 

Endicott, John, 91, 103. 

Episcopal churches forbidden in Mass. Bay 
Colony, 93. 

Epochs of American History, books on, 
527-529. 

Era of good feeling, 305. 1 

Eric the Red, 19. 

Ericsson, John, invents screw propeller, 
324; invents turret ship, 383, 384; por- 
trait bust, 383. 

Ericsson, Leif, 20. 

Erie Canal, 313, 314. 

Eries, 8. 

Essex, frigate, captures the Alert, 289-292. 

Ether, use of in^surgery, 486. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 240. 

Evacuation of New York, 247. 

Exeter, N. H., founding of, 99. 

Expatriation, 439. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 390. 

Faneuil Hall, 198 ; picture of, 198. 

Faneuil, Peter, 198. 

Farragut, David, 292, 320, 387 ; portrait, 
387. 

Far South, settlements in, map, 148. 

Federal Convention, 253. 

Federalist party, 272-278, 382, 286, 289, 
296, 306. 

Federalist, The, 489. 

Federal Union, early need of, 184. 

Ferdinand and Isabella, 62. 

Fifteenth Amendment, 439. 

" Fifty-four forty or fight," 330. 

Filibustering expeditions, 354. 

Fillmore, M., 349; portrait, 349. 

First permanent French settlement, 53. 

Five Forks, battle of, 419. 

Five Nations, 8. 

Flag, American, origin of, 228 ; first hoisted, 
227. 

Flags, American and English, picture, 228. 

Flamborough Head, 234. 

Flat River, 45. 

Florida, discovery of, 31, 32 ; given to Eng- 
land, 174; bought by United States, 307; 
admitted to Union, 335. 

Floyd, John, 320. 

Foote, Commodore, 385. 

Forrest, Edwin, 493. 

Fort Crevecceur, 156, 157. 

Fort Dearborn, 293. 

Fort Donelson, 384, 385. 

Fort Duquesne, 168-170, 173; becomes 
Fort Pitt, 173. 

Fort Edward, 224, 228. 

Fort Erie, 295. 

Fort Fisher, capture of, 417. 

Fort Henry, 384, 385. 

Fort Loyal, 162. 

Fort Mimms, massacre at, 295. 

Fort Moultrie, battle of, 211. 



INDEX. 



549 



Fort Necessity, 169. 

Fort Stanwix, 226, 227. 

Fort Sumter, 135, 137, 366, 371, 372. 

Fort Warren, 381. 

Fort Washington, capture of, 219. 

Fort Wayne, battle with Indians near, 271. 

Fort William Henry, 172. 

Fortress Monroe, 420. 

" Fountain of Youth," — Juan Ponce de 

Leon's search, 42. 
Fourteenth Amendment, 434. 
" Fourth Part," 34. 
Fox, Charles, 194. 
France, alliance with, 231; quarrel with, 

275-277. 
Francis I., king of France, 50. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 184-18S ; portrait, 

185; picture of his birthplace, 1S4; his 

printing press, 187 ; his Plan of Union, 

187, 247. 
Frederica, battle of, 151. 
Frederick the Great, 171. 
Fredericksburg, battle of, 404. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 434. 
Freeman's Farm, battle of, 230. 
Free-Soil Party, 338. 
Fremont, J. C., 335, 358. 389. 
French, Daniel Chester, 491. 
French discoveries, map of, 52. 
French explorations in Miss. Valley, 155. 
French fleets in the Revolutionary War, 

232, 235, 2 4°- 
French names of places in the United 

States, 155. 
French Revolution, 272, 274. 
Friction matches, 324. 
Frobisher, Martin, 62. 
Frolic, British sloop, captured by the Wasp, 

290. 
Frontenac, Count, 161-165; his autograph, 

161. 
Fugitive slave law of 1850, 351, 394, 395. 
Fulton, Robert, 30S. 
Furness, Horace Howard, 490. 

Gage, Thomas, 203-206. 

Gama, Vasca da, 31. 

Garfield, J. A., elected president, 446; por- 
trait, 447. 

Garrison, W. L., portrait, 331. 

Gaspee, the schooner, 199. 

Gates, Horatio, 227, 230, 231, 235. 

Gates, Sir T., 68. 

" Gateway of the West," 169. 

Genet, Citizen, 272. 

Genoa, 23, 30. 

Geography, early textbooks on, 23. 

George II., king of Great Britain, 167. 

George III., king of Great Britain, 192-196, 
199-201, 208, 209; portrait, 192. 

Georgia, beginnings of, 150-152; overrun 
by British, 234. 

Germans in North Carolina, 149. 

Germantown, battle of, 230. 

German troops in British service, 208. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 405-408. 

Gettysburg speech of President Lincoln, 
410, 411. 

Ghent, treaty of, 297. 



Gifford, R. Swain, 491. 

Gilder, Richard Watson, 489. 

Goffe, William, 190. 

Gold in Mexico and Peru, 41 ; in California, 
336. 

Goldsborough, battle of, 419. 

Gomez, Estevan, 43. 

Gorges, Sir F., 85, 97, 112. 

Gorton, Samuel, 99. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 85. 

Gourgues, Dominique de, 52. 

Graffenried, Baron de, 149. 

Grand Gulf, 403. 

Grants to London and Plymouth Compa- 
nies, 66. 

Grant, U. S., 378,384-386, 401-404, 408; 
his presidency, 436-445; portrait, 416. 

Grasse, Count de, 240. 

Gray, Asa, 489. 

Gray, Robert, 283. 

Greeley, Horace, 441. 

Greenbacks, 409. 

Green Bay, Wis., 157. 

Greene, Nathanael, portrait, 238; his 
southern campaigns, 239, 240. 

Greenland, Norse colony in, 19. 

Greenough, Horatio, 491. 

Griffin, the first vessel on Great Lakes, 
155- 

Groton, Mass., 162. 

Guerriere, British frigate, captured by the 
Constitution, 289. 

Guiana, James I.'s expedition to, 65. 

Guilford, battle of, 239. 

Haines Bluff, 401-403. 

Hale, J. P., 349. 

Hale, Horatio, 490. 

Half-civilized Indians, 9. 

Half Moon, Hudson's ship, 130. 

Halleck, H. W., 391, 405. 

Hamilton, Alexander, 10 1; his financial 

policy, 268-270 ; killed in a duel, 284 ; 

portrait, 254 ; political writer, 489. 
Hamilton, Henry, British commander at 

Detroit, 234. 
Hancock, John, 204; his house in Boston, 

263. 
Hancock, W. S., 446. 
Harlem Heights, battle of, 219. 
Harmar, Josiah, defeated by the Indians, 

271. 
Harper's Ferry, John Brown's raid, 364 : 

captured by " Stonewall Jackson," 393. 
Harpsichord, picture of, 264. 
Harris, Joel Chandler, 489. 
Harrison, Benjamin, 1 ; elected president, 

455 ; portrait, 456. 
Harrison, W. H., 293, 294, 322; elected 

president, 327 ; portrait, 327. 
Harte, Bret, 485. 

Hartford, 102; Convention, 296, 306 
Harvard College, founding of, 96 
Harvard, John, 96. 
Harvev, Sir John, 74. 
Hatteras Inlet, 387. 
Haverhill, Mass., 162, 165. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 59. 
Hawthorne, N,, portrait, 332. 



550 



INDEX. 



Hayes, R. B., 444, 445". his presidency, 
445, 446; portrait, 445. 

Hayne, Robert, 318. 

Hayti, 28, 29. 

Heights of Abraham, 174. 

Hennessy, W. J., 49 1 - 

Henry IV., king of France, 52, 53. 

Henry, Joseph, 334. 

Henry, Patrick, 190, 195 ; portrait, 191. 

Henry, the Navigator, 23. 

Herkimer, Nicholas, 226. 

Hessians. See German troops. 

Hiawatha, 17. 

Hieroglyphic writing, 12. 

Higginsbn, Col. T. W., 352, 489. 

HilC Ambrose Powell, 405. 

Hindustan, 26, 31, 167. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 240. 

Holland, Pilgrims in, 88. 

Holmes, O. W., 437 ; portrait, 332. 

Holy Alliance, 307. 

Homer, Winslow, 491. 

Hood, J. B., 418. 

Hooker, Joseph, 404, 405. 

Hooker, Thomas, 101. 

Hopkins, Stephen, 199. 

Hornet, sloop, captures Peacock, 291. 

House of Representatives, 254. 

Houses, Indian, 5, 6. 

Houses of farmers in 18th century, 264, 
265. 

Houston, Samuel, his portrait, 334. 

Howard, Lord, 60. 

Howe, Elias, 476. 

Howe, Julia Ward, 489. 

Howe, Lord, 218; portrait, 219. 

Howe, Sir W., 206, 209, 218-222, 224, 229- 
231 ; portrait, 218. 

Howells, W. D., 489. 

Hubbardton, battle of, 225. 

Hudson, Henry, 130. 

Hudson River, discovery of, 43, 51, 130; 
map of , 130; military importance of, 217. 

Huguenots in Carolinas, 148, 149 ; in Flor- 
ida, 51. 

Hull, Isaac, his portrait, 289. 

Hull, William, 293. 

Huntington, 491. 

Huron, Lake, discovery of, 54. 

Huron mission, 54, 155. 

Hurons, 8. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 99. 

Hyde, Edward, 147. 

Iberville, 162-167. 

Icelandic Chronicles, 19, 21. 

Iceland, settlement of, 19. 

Idaho, admitted as a State, 455. 

Illinois, admitted to Union in 181S, 309. 

Illinois Indians, 157. 

Immigration, 471. 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 435. 

Impressment of American seamen, 273, 285. 

Incas, 12, 13. 

Indentured servants, 71. 

Indiana, added to Union, 1816, 309. 

Indian Rights Assn., 442. 

Indian corn, 95. 

Indian face, typical, 2. 



Indians, why so called, 2; their cruelty, 8. 

Indian Territory, 330. 

Indian War, scene of, map, 271, 

Ingoldsby, Richard, 136. 

Inness, Geo., 87. 

Internal Improvements, 313, 315. 

International copyright, 457. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 454. 

" Ironclad Oath," 434, 44c. 

Iroquois, 8,54; iheir hostility to the French, 
55 ; their alliance with the Dutch, 132 ; 
attacked by Frontenac, 165 ; their coun- 
try ravaged by Sullivan, 233; their 
houses, 5. 

Irrigation, 10. 

Irving, W., portrait, 332. 

Island Number Ten, 388. 

Iuka, battle of, 398. 

Jackson, Andrew, 295-297, 312 ; presidency, 

316-322 ; portrait, 317. 
Jackson, Charles, 486. 
Jackson, T. J. (" Stonewall "), 375, 390- 

393, 404; portrait, 390 
James, Henry, 489. 

James I., king of Great Britain, 64, 88. 
James II., king of Great Britain, 114, 115, 

J 34- . 

James River, Spanish colony on, 43. 

Jamestown, founding of, 67; view of its 
ruins, 73. 

Janauschek, Fanny, 495. 

Java, British frigate, captured by the Con- 
stitution, 291. 

Jay, John, 247,273, 485; portrait, 273. 

Jefferson, Joseph, 493. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 73, 106, 210, 269: por- 
trait, 254 ; his personal characteristics, 
279, 280; vice-president, 274; his presi- 
dency, 279-286. 

Jesuit missionaries, 54. 

Jewett, Sarah Orne, 489. 

Johnson, Andrew, 421 ; presidency, 433- 
436 ; portrait, 435. 

Johnson, Eastman, 491. 

Johnson, Sir John, 231, 235. 

Johnson, Sir William, 172. 

Johnston, A. S., 386. 

Johnston, J. E., 379, 390, 403, 419, 420 ; por- 
trait, 380. 

Joliet, 155. 

Jones, Paul, 234 ; portrait, 234. 

Kansas, disorders in, 356. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 354-356. 

Karlsefni, Thorfinn, 20. 

Kaskaskia, 111., 167. 

Kearney, Philip, 335. 

Kearsarge, frigate, sinks cruiser Alabama, 

4*7- 
Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 417. 
Kensett, J. F., 491. 
Kent, James, 4S8. 
Kentucky, beginnings of, 233 ; resolutions, 

277 ! 306, 376, 377, 379. 
Kidd, William, the pirate, 137. 
King George's War, 167. 
King, Rufus, 306. 
King Philip's War, 1 10-112. 



INDEX. 



551 



King William's War, 160. 
King's Chapel in Bo=ton, 114. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 238. 
Kings, Indian, 12. 
Kirk, J. F., 49°- 

Kitchen of Whittier homestead, 265. 
Know-Nothing Party, 358, 364. 
Kosciusko, Gen., 223. 
" Ku Klux Klan,'' 440. 

Labor troubles, 446, 461. 

Labrador, 30. 

La Farge, John, 491. 

Lafayette, Marquis de, 223, 240 ; portrait, 
223- 

Lake Erie, battle of, 294. 

Lake George, battle of, 172. 

Langley, S. P., 485. 

La Plata, colonies near, 41. 

La Salle, Robert de, 155-159 ; portrait, 
156. 

Laughing Gas, 4?6. 

La Vengeance, frigate, the capture of, 277. 

Lawrence, Cipt., 292. 

Lawrence, fl gship, 294. 

Lawson, John, surveyor, 149. 

Le Boeuf, 168. 

Lecompton affair, 361. 

Lea, Henry Chares, 490. 

Lee, Charles, soldier of fortune in command 
of half the American army, 220 ; portrait. 
220; treasonable act, 221; behavior at 
Monmouth, 232 ; expelled from the army, 
232. 

Lee, Henry, 239. 

Lee, R. E., 239, 390, 391, 404, 407, 408, 
415, 417, 419; portrait, 389. 

Lee, R. H., 210. 

Legal Tender Act, 409. 

Leidy, 486. 

Leif Eric=son, 20. 

Leisler, Jacob, 135, 136, 162 ; autograph, 135. 

Lenape, 9. 

Leopard, frigate, 285. 

Lery, Baron de, 50. 

Levant, British sloop, captured by the Con- 
stitution, 292. 

Lewis and Clark, expedition of, 283. 

Lexington, battle of, 204, 205. 

Leyden, Pilgrims at, 88. 

Liberal Republicans, 440. 

Liberty party 334. 

Libraries, 481-483. 

Library of Reference for American History, 
Minimum, 532-534. 

" Li<jht Horse Harry," 239. 

Lighting streets and houses, 479. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 361-364; early home, 
362; debate with Douglas, 362; presi- 
dency, 365-421; portrait, 368. 

Lincoln, Benjamin, 235, 250. 

Line of Demarcation, 32, 52. 

L'Insurgente, frigate, 276. 

Literature, recent American, 489, 490. 

Little Belt, surrender of, 288. 

Little Round Top, 406. 

Llama, 13. 

Locke, John, 147. 

" Locofoco " party, 325. 



London Company, 65, 85 ; overthrow of, 

74- 
Lone Star State, 333. 

Longfellow, H. W., 333,437; portrait, 332. 
Long Island, battle of, 218. 
Long Parliament, the, 74. 
Longstreet, J. B., 406. 
Lookout Mountain, 414. 
Lopez, N., 349. 

Louis XlV.'s autograph, facsimile, 160. 
Louis XV., king of France, 160. 
Louisburg, first capture of, 167. 
Louisiana purchase, maps illustrating, 280, 

281. 
Louisiana, state of, 311. 
Louisiana territory, 158; ceded to Spain, 

175 ; ceded back to France, 281 ; sold to 

United States, 282 
Lowell, J. R., portrait, 437. 
Lundy's Lane, battle of, 295. 
Lyndhurst, Lord, 49L 
Lyon, Nathaniel, portrait, 376. 

Macdonough, Thomas, portrait, 295. 

Macedonian, British frigate, captured by 
frigate United States, 290. 

Mac Monnies, 491. 

M icomb, Gen., 295. 

Madison, James, portrait, 255; his presi- 
dency, 287-297. 

Magellan, 35, 36, 42 ; portrait, 35. 

Maine, beginnings of, 97, 112 ; admitted to 
Union, 311. 

Maize. 5, 95. 

Malacca, 31. 

Manufactures prohibited in American col- 
onies, 182. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 391. 

Mandans, their houses, 6. 

Manhattan Island in the 16th century, 129. 

Manufactori s in England, 310. 

Maracaibo, Gulf of, 32. 

Marietta, O io, founding of, 261. 

Marion, Francis, portrait, 235. 

Market-gardening, 449, 476. 

Marquette, 155. 

Marsh, O C, 486. 

Marshall, John, portrait. 255 ; 486. 

Martha's Vineyard, 85. 

Martin, Homer, 49 b 

Maryland, lounding of, 125-129 ; settlement 
of, 128. 

Maskoki, 8. 

Mason and Dixon's line, 142, 489. 

Mason, John, conqueror of the Pequots, 
103. 

Mason, John, founder of New Hampshire, 

97- 
Mason, J. M., 381. 
Massachusetts Assembly, circular letter of, 

'97- 

Massachusetts Bay, Company of, 91, 106, 
125. 

Massachusetts, its first charter, 91, 92; an- 
nulled by Charles II., 113; its second 
charter granted by William III., 116; an- 
nulled by George III., 311. 

Massasoit, 90. 

Matagorda Bay, entered by La Salle, 159. 



552 



INDEX. 



Maximilian in Mexico, 436. 

Mayas, 11. 

Mayflower, the ship, 89. 

McClellan, G. B., 380, 388-394, 404, 418 ; 

portrait, 388. 
McClure, Sir Robert, 42. 
McCormick reaper, 324. 
McDowell, Irwin, 379, 389, 390. 
McKinley tariff, 456. 

Meade, Gen. Geo. Gordon, 405, 407, 413. 
Meares, John, 283. 
Medicine men, 7. 
Meigs, Josiah, 480. 
Mela, Pomponius, 24. 
Memphis, battle of, 388. 
Menendez, Pedro de, 46, 51. 
Merrimac and Monitor, 382, 384. 
Mexican War, 335, 336. 
Mexico, n ; conquest of, 40. 
Mexico city taken by Scott, 336. 
Miantonomo, 110. 
Michigan admitted to Union, 330. 
Middle Colonies, settlement of map, 126; 

in 1690, map, 142. 
Middle period of American history, 161 ; 

its end, 256. 
Milborne, Jacob, 135. 
Mills Bill, 451. 
Mill Spring, battle of, 384. 
Minot House in Dorchester, 95. 
Minuit, Peter, 131. 
Missionary Ridge, 414. 
Mississippi added to the Union, 309. 
Mississippi Question, 251. 
Mississippi River, discovery of, 45, 155, 

158. 
Mississippi Valley, importance of in Civil 

War, 399, 400. 
Missouri and Kentucky in Civil War, 377;. 

situation in 1861-62, map, 378. 
Missouri compromise, 311, 313, 347, 348, 

354> 355> 366. 
Missouri saved for the Union, 375, 376. 
Mobile Bay, 43 ; battle of, 41 j* 
Mobile, founding of, 167. 
Modoc War, 442. 
Mohegans, 9, 103, no. 
Money, continental, facsimile of, 236. 
Monitor and Merrimac, 383, 384. 
Monk, George, 147. 
Monmouth, battle of, 232. 
Monroe Doctrine, 307. 
Monroe, James, his presidency, 305-311 ; 

portrait, 306. 
Montana, 455. 

Montcalm, 172-174 ; portrait, 174. 
Montfort, Simon de, 189. 
Montgomery, Richard, 208, 209. 
Montreal, 51. 
Monts, Sieur de, 53. 
Moquis, 10, 44. 
Morgan, Daniel, portrait, 239. 
Morgan, William, mysterious disappearance 

of, 3'9- 
Mormons, 329. 
Morris, Robert, 237. 

Morristown, N. J., occupied by Washing- 
ton, 222. 
Morse, S. F, B-, 334- 



Morton, Wm., 486. 

Motley, J. L. , portrait, 438. 

Moultrie, William, 210, 211 ; portrait, 211. 

Mound-builders, 13, 14. 

Mount Vernon, Va., 246. 

" Mugwumps," 450. 

Mummies, Peruvian, 13. 

Murfree, Mary N., 489. 

Museums, 484. 

Music in America, 492. 

Names of the states explained, 518-526. 

Napoleon I., 281, 285, 287, 288, 295. 

Napoleon III., 370, 436. 

Narragansetts, 9, 90, 98, 103, 110-112. 

Narragansett swamp fight, 112. 

Narvaez, Panfilo de, 43. 

Nashville, battle of, 418. 

Nasmyth steam hammer, 324. 

National Bank Act, 412. 

National domain, 310, 311. 

National Republicans, 315. 

Naturalization, 475. 

Nature worship, 7. 

Naumkeag, 91. 

Nauvoo settled by Mormons, 329. 

Naval warfare, revolution in, 382-384. 

Neff, Mary, 164. 

Negroes, first used as slaves on United 
States soil, 43, 71. 

Netherlands, revolt of, 60. 

New Amsterdam, 131. 

New Bern, founding of, 149. 

Newcomb, Simon, 485. 

New England, map of by John Smith, 86. 

New England under Sir E. Andros, map, 
114. 

Newfoundland, 125 ; its fisheries, 50. 

New France, maps of, 157, 158. 

New Hampshire, beginnings of, 97, 99, 100, 
112. 

New Haven colony, 105 ; annexed to Con- 
necticut, no. 

New Jersey, beginnings of, 137, 138. 

New Mexico, 10, 348, 349. 

New Netherland Co., 130. 

New Orleans, picture of in 1719, 166; found- 
ing of, 167 ; battle of, 296 ; in Civil War, 

387. 
Newport, Sullivan s attempt to capture, 232. 
New style and old style, 534-536. 
New York in French war, map, 172. 
Niagara, flagship, 294. 
Nichols, Richard, 133. 
Nicholson, Francis, 134. 
Nipmucks, in. 
Nizza, Marcos de, 44. 
Nominating conventions, 319. 
Non-intercourse Act, 286, 287. 
Norfolk, Va., burned by the British, 209. 
Norridgewock, capture of, 167. 
Norse ships, 20. 
North America after peace of 1763, map, 

i75- 

North Carolina, beginnings of, 148, 149; in- 
surrection in, 199; the Revolutionary 
War in, 209. 

North, Lord, 196, 216, 230, 231, 246; por- 
trait, 196. 



INDEX. 



553 



Northmen, 19. 

Nonh Virginia, old name for New England, 
85, 86. 

Northwestern Territory, 251, 252. 

Northwest Passage, 42. 

Nova Scoiia, French colony in, 53; con- 
quered by English, 166. 

Novels relating to American history, 539- 

532- 
Nueces River, 335. 
Nullification, 27S, 317-320. 

Observatories, 485. 

Oglethorpe, J.imes, 150-152; portrait, 150. 

Ohi" Company, 16S. 

Ojibwas. See Chippewas. 

'■ Old lronsides,' : 290, 291, 307. 

Old Sanmi, 193. 

Old South Leaflets, 39. 

Old South Meeting-house, 114, 199, 202; 

picture of, 202. 
Old style and new style, <s;u-536. 
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 494. 
Ontario, Lake, discovery of, 54. 
"Opposite World," 34. 
Orders in Council, 285, 2SS ; revoked, 289. 
Ordinance of 1787, 252, 310. 
Ordinance of Secession, 365. 
Oregon country, division of, 330. 
Oregon, exploration of, 2S2, 2S3. 
Orinoco River, 30. 
Oriskany, battle of, 227. 
Ostend Manifesto, 354. * 

Oswego, captured by Montcalm, 172. 
Otis, James, 183. 
Ottawas, 9. 

Paducah, 377, 378. 

Page, Thomas Nelson, 4S9. 

Paine, John Knnwles, 492. 

P.ik:nliain, Sir Edward, 296. 

Palisades on Wall St., picture, 131. 

Palmer, John At., 463. 

Palimrston, Lord, 371. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 335. 

Palos, 27. 

Panama, 31. 

Pan-American Congress, 456. 

Panic of 1837, 326; of 1873, 441. 

Papjr money, 236, 326, 409, 412. 

Paris, treaty of, 246. 

Parishes and townships, 94. 

Parker, Theodore, portrait, 331. 

Parkmai, Francis, portrait, 43S. 

Parsons, T. W., 489. 

Parties, political, origin of, in U. S., 269. 

Patent Office at Washington, 324. 

Patroons, 131, 329. 

Patterson, Robert, 379. 

Paxton, Charles, 1S2. 

Pe.ibody, Giorge, 484. 

Peace Conference of 1S61, 366. 

" Peac; Democrats,' 1 370. 

Peacock, British brig sunk by the Hornet, 

291. 
Peirc;. Benjamin, 486. 
Peirce. Charles S., 486. 
Pemberton, J. C, 403. 
Pendleton, G. H., 449. 



Penn, William, 138-142; portrait, 138; au- 
tograph, 1 59 ; wampum belt, 140 ; house 
in Philadelphia, 141. 

Pennsylvania, beginnings of, 138-142. 

Pennsylvania Gazette, 187. 

Pennsylvania, University of, 187. 

Pepperell, Sir William, 167. 

Pequot fort, plan of. 104. 

Pequot War, the, 102-104. 

Pequots. 9. 

Perry, E. W., 491. 

Perry, O. H , portrait, 294. 

Perry, T. S, 4 ?9- 

Perry vilie, battle of, 398. 

Pergonal Li'oeity Laws, 351, 367. 

Peru, ancient, 12, 13 ; conquest of, 41. 

Petersburg-, 419. 

Philadelphia, Congress at, 204-210. 

Philadelphia, four ding of, 140. 

Philip or Metacom, son of Massasoit ; his 
niaik, in. 

Phillips, Wer.dell, portrait, 331. 

Phips, Sir William, 164. 

Pickens, Andrew, 2:5. 

Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, picture of, 
4° 7. 

Pierce, F., 349; his presidency, 350-358; 
portrait, 350. 

Pilgrim Fathers, true date of their landing 
at Plymouth, 537. 

Pilgrim relics, 90. 

Pilgrims, lionies of, map, 88. 

Pinckney, C. C, 284, 286. 

Pinzon, Vincent, 30-32. 

Pisa, 23. 

Pitcairn, Major, 205. 

Pitt, William. Earl of Chatham, 171, 191- 
u,= ; portrait, 171. 

Pittsburgh, lhe Gateway of the West, 169. 

Pittsburg Landii g, 3!- 6. 

Pian of Union, Franklin's, 187. 

Platte country, 354. 

Plattsburg, battie of, 295. 

Plymouth colony, founding of, 89-91 ; an- 
nexed to Massachusetts, 115. 

Plymouth Company, 65, 85. 

Pocahontas, 68. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 333. 

Poems about American history, 529-532. 

Polk, J. K-, 334; his presidency, 335-338; 
portrait, 335. 

Polk, General Leonidas, 377-379. 

Ponce de Leon, Juan, 42. 

Pontiac's War, 175. 176. 

Poor Richard's Almanack, facsimile of 
page, 1S6. 

Pope, John, 38S, 39-1. 

Popham colony. 67, 85. 

Population cf the U. S., 261, 30"*, 367, 368, 
436; centre of, 470; increase of, 475. 

Populists, 459. 

Porter, David, the elder, 289 ; the younger, 
387, portiait, 3S8. 

Port Gibson, 403. 

Port Hudson, 4c 408. 

Port Royal, French -ettlement at, 53. 

Port Royal, S. C. 387. 

Postal system, 477. 

Potato, first cultivated in Peru, 13. 



554 



INDEX. 



Potomac, Army of, 380, 405, 406. 

Pottawatomies, 9. 

Pottery, Indian, 3-5. 

Poutrincourt, 53. 

Powell, J. W., 490. 

Powers, Hiram, 491. 

Powhatans, 8. 

Preble, Edward, his medal, 282, 283. 

Prescott, W. H., portrait, 332. 

President, frigate, 288. 

Presidential succession, legislation concern- 
ing, 452. 

Presque Isle, 168. 

Priesthood, Indian, 12. 

Princeton, battle of, 222. 

Printing press, first in United States, 106. 

Proctor, H. A., 293. 

Pronunciation of proper names, 5^9-543. 

Proprietary colonies, 126, 147, 148, 151. 

Prospect of the colleges in Cambridge in 
New England, 96. 

Providence, R. I., founding of, 99. 

Provincial Congress in Mass., 204. 

Psalm Book, the Bay, 106. 

Ptolemy, Claudius, 24. 

Pueblos, 10. 

Pulaski, Count, 223. 

Puritans in England, 87, 91 ; in Maryland, 
127. 

Putnam, Israel, 205, 218. 

Pynchon, Wm., 102. 

Quakers in Boston, 108. 

Quebec, founding of, 53 ; . first expedition 
against, 164 ; second expedition against, 
166; taken by English, 174; assaulted by 
Americans, 209. 

Queen Anne's War, 165. 

Railroads, invention of, 322-324. 

Railway train, picture of one of the first in 

America, 323. 
Raisin River, battle of, 293. 
Raleigh, N. C, city of, 64. 
Raleigh, Sir W., 62-65, 124; portrait, 62. 
Raleigh Tavern, 197. 
Raymond, battle of, 403. 
Rebellions: Bacon's, 77; Dorr's, 328.; the 

Great, 371-428 ; Shays's, 250. 
Reconstruction, 433, 434. 
Regicides in New England, 109. 
Representation in England and America, 

192-194 ; in slave states, 346. 
Representative governments, in England 

and Virginia, 72. 
Representatives, House of, 248; electing 

presidents, 278, 312. 
Republican party, the old, 272-274, 278, 284- 

286, 306, 312,315; new, 356. 
Resaca, battle of, 417. 
Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 335. 
Returning boards, 440. 
Revere, Paul, 204. 
Rhode Island, 107; beginnings of, 99; its 

old charter superseded, 328. 
Ribault, Jean, 51, 147. 
Richardson, Henry Hobson, 493. 
Rittenhouse, David, 485. 
Roanoke Island, 63. 



Robertson, James, 234. 

Roberval, 51. 

Robinson, John, 88. 

Rochambeau, Count de, 240. 

Rock Creek, 406. 

Rolfe, John, 70, 71. 

Rosecrans, W. S., 380, 398, 414, 

Rotation in office, 316. 

Round Top, 406. 

Routes of the four greatest voyages, 36. 

Routes of trade between Europe and Asia, 

22. 
Roxbury, Mass., settlement of, 93. 
Rumford, Count, 486, 487 ; portrait, 486. 
Russell, Earl, 371. 
Russians on California coast, 307. 
Rutherfurd, Lewis, 485. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 165. 

Sable Island, French colony on, 50. 

Sachem's Head, 104. 

Sachems and war-chiefs, 7. 

Sacs and Foxes, 9. 

St. Augustine, besieged by Oglethorpe, 
151 ; Spanish gateway at, 45. 

St. Clair, Arthur, defeated by the Indians, 
272. 

St. Gaudens, A., 49r. 

St. Leger, Barry, 223, 226, 227. 

" Salary Grab/' 443. 

Salem, Mass., founding of, 91 ; witchcraft 
delusion in, 164. 

Salmon Falls, N. H., 162. 

Salt Lake City, 329. 

San Francisco in 1849, view of, 337. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 333. 

San Miguel on James River, 43. 

Santa Anna, 333~33& ! portrait, 333. 

Sault Sainte Marie, 155. 

Savage Indians, picture of, 3. 

Savannah, Ga., view of, in 1741, 151 ; Amer- 
ican failure to capture, 235 ; captured by 
Sherman, 418. 

Saybrook, 101. 

Schenectady, massacre at, 162. 

Schools and Colleges, 481, 482. 

Schuyler, Philip, 224-227 ; portrait, 224. 

Scotch-Irish in America, 149. 

Scott, Dred, 360, 361. 

Scott, Winfield, 335, 336. 

Scrooby, 88. 

Search, right of, 273. 

Search warrants, 183. 

Secession of several states, 365, 366, 374. 

Sedition act, 277. 

Self-government, local, 267. 

Seminary Ridge, 406. 

Seminoles, 8, 306. 

Senate, 254. 

Seneca-Iroquois Long-House, 5. 

Separatists, 86-88, 93. 

Seven days' battles, 391. 

Seven Years' War, 171-175. 

Seward, W. H., 350, 421. 

Sewing-machine, 476. 

Seymour, Horatio, 436. 

Shannon, British frigate, captures Chesa- 
peake, 292. 

Shawmut, Indian name of Boston, 93. 



INDEX. 



555 



Shawnees, 9. 

Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts, 250. 
Sheep raising in England, 65. 
Shenandoah Valley in Civil War, 375, 390. 
Sheridan, Philip, 415, 417, 419; portrait, 

416. 
" Sherman Act," 455. 

Sherman, W. T., 402, 403, 417, 418; por- 
trait, 416. 
Shiloh, battle of, 386. 
Sioux War in Minnesota, 398. 
Sioux War, 1876, 442. 
Six Nations, 166. 
Slavery, gradual abolition of, in northern 

states, 309; unexpected growth of, in 

southern states, 310. 
Slavery in the territories, 360, 364. 
Slaves, fugitive, law for their arrest, 346, 

349. 35°. 35'- ... 
Slave trade, beginnings of, 59 ; abolished 

in District of Columbia, 349 ; reopened 

with Africa, 361. 
Slidell, John, 381. 
Sloughter, Henry, 136. 
Smith, F. Hopkmson, 489. 
Smith, John, 61, 67-69, 86; portrait, 68. 
Smith, Joseph, 329. 
Smith, Gen. Kirby, 3S0. 
Smithsonian Institution, 484. 
Smugglers, 182. 
Snakes and lightning, 7. 
Social life in 1790, 264. 
Somers, Sir G., 68. 
Songs relating to American history, 529- 

532. 
Soto, F. de, 45. 
South Carolina, beginnings of, 150; secedes 

from Union, 365. 
South Georgia, island of, 34. 
Spaniards driven from Georgia, 151. 
Spanish colonies, 40-45 ; revolt of, 307. 
Speedwell, the ship, 88. 
Spoils System, 316, 317, 440. 
Spottsylvania, battle of, 415. 
Springfield, Mass., founding of, 102. 
" Squatter sovereignty," 355. 
Stamp Act, 1S8-192, 195. 
Stamp, picture of a, 189. 
Standard time, 577. 
Standish, Miles, 89. 
Stanton, Edwin M., 405, 435. 
Stark, John, his silhouette and autograph, 

205, 225. 
Stars and Stripes first hoisted, 227 ; origin 

of, 228. 
State debts assumed by Congress, after the 

Revolution, 270. 
State House in Philadelphia, 210. 
" State Rights Whigs, 1 ' 321. 
States, classified according to origin, 512 ; 

table of, 517; names of, 518-526; books 

on the history of, 518-526. 
Steamboats, their influence in settlement of 

the West, 308. 
Steam engine, invention of, 266. 
Steamships crossing Atlantic, 324. 
Stephens, A. H., 366; portrait, 365. 
Stephenson, George, inventor of locomo- 
tive, portrait, 322. 



Steuben, Baron von, portrait, 232. 

Stone implements, 4, 12. 

Stone River, battle of, 398. 

Stony Point, 233. 

Story, Joseph, 488. 

Story, W. W.,491. 

Stowe, Mrs. H. B., portrait, 353. 

Strand, old street in New York, 133. 

Street-cars, 478. 

Stuart, Gilbert, 491. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, portrait, 132. 

Submarine cable, 436. 

Sub-Treasury System, 326. 

Sullivan, John, 218; his campaign against 

the Iroquois, 233 ; Newport campaign, 

232. 
Sullivan's Island, 1776, 211. 
Sumner, Charles, 350, 357 ; portrait, 357. 
Sumter, Thomas, 235. 
Sun-Worship, 7, 13. 
Supreme Court, 254. 
Susquehannocks, 8. 
Swanzey, burned 1675, '"• 
Swedes in Delaware, 132. 

Tacoma, view in Pacific Avenue, 458. 

Tallapoosa, battle of, 295. 

Talleyrand, Prince, 275. 

Tariff laws between the states, 249. 

Tariffs, 270, 271, 3>4~3i6, 45'i 455- 

Tarleton, Barrastre, 239. 

Tarratines, 112. 

Taylor, Z., 335, 337; portrait, 348; his 

presidency, 345.-349- 
Tea ships, reception of, 200-203. 
Tecumseh, 293-295. 
Telegraph, invention of, 334, 477. 
Telephone, 478. 
Tennessee, beginnings of, 234. 
Tenure of Office bill, 435. 
Terry, Alfred, 417. 
Texas, annexation of, 333-336 ; admitted to 

Union, 335. 
Thames, battle of the, 294. 
Thayendanegea, 226. 
Theatre in America, 493. 
Theatres, objection to, 264. 
Thirteenth amendment, 434. 
Thomas, G. H., 384, 414, 415, 418; por- 
trait, 416. 
Thomas, Theodore, 492. 
Thompson, Benj., Count Rumford, 486, 

487. 
Thorfinn Karlsefni, 20. 
Ticknor, George, 487. 
Ticonderoga, first battle at, 55 ; fortified by 

the French, 172; great battle at, 173; 

taken by the English, 173 ; captured by 

Ethan Allen, 205 ; captured by Bur- 

goyne, 225. 
Tilclen, S. J., 444. 
Time, standard, in United States and Can- 

ada, 533. 

Tippecanoe and Tyler too, 293, 327. 
Tobacco, cultivation of, 70. 
Tonty, Henri de, 157. 
Toombs, Robert, 372. 
Tories, persecution of in America, after 

the Revolution, 248, 272. 



556 



INDEX. 



Tory parry in New England, 113. 

Toscanelli, astronomer, 26; his map, 27. 

Totems, 7. 

Town-meetings, 94. 

Townshend, Charles, 195. 

Townshend Act, 195-199. 

Townships and parishes, 94. 

Trading-posts on the Hudson, 130. 

Traveling in 1790, 261, 266. 

Treasure-ships, Spanish, 61. 

Treatbs : Aix-la-Chapelle, 167 ; the Ash- 
burton, 329; with China, 454; Ghent, 
297 ; Paris, 246 ; Penn's, 140 ; of reci- 
procity, 456 ; Ryswick, 165 ; Washing- 
ton, 438. 

Tremont, meaning of the name, 93. 

Trenton, battle of, 222. 

Trent, stonier, 381. 

Tribes and clans, Indian, 7. 

Tripoli, war with, 2S3, 284. 

Trumbull, J. H., 490. 

Trumbull, John, 491; his portrait of Daniel 
Morgan, 239; of John Adams, 276; his 
picture of Cornwallis's surrender, 241. 

Truxtun, Thomas, 276, 277 ; his medal, 275. 

Turks, effect of their conquests upon navi- 
gation, 23. 

Tuscaroras, S, 149, 166. 

Tyler, John, 321 ; his presidency, 327-333, 
366 ; portrait, 328. 

Type-writer, 476. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 353. 

" Unconditional Surrender," 383. 

" Underground railroad," 353. 

Underbill, John, 103. 

Union, Federal, early need of, 184. 

Union Jack, picture, 228. 

Union Pacific railroad, 436. 

" Unite or Die," 188. 

United Colonies of New Eng., 107. 

United States, frigate, captures Macedo- 
nian, 290. 

University of Va., founded by Jefferson, 
2S0. 

Utah, 34S, 349 ; admitted as a state, 462. 

Uxmal, 11. 

Vaca, Cabeza de, 43. 

Vakotir Island, battle of, 217. 

Vallev Forge, 231. 

Van "Buren, Martin, his presidency, 322- 
327 ; portrait, 326 ; opposed to extension 
of slaverv, 333; Free-Soil candidate for 
presidency, 338. 

Vancouver, George, 283. 

Vedder, Elihu, 491. 

Venango, 168. 

Venezuela, 32 ; its pearl fisheries, 41 ; treaty 
with Great Britain, 464, 465. 

Venice, 23. 

Verrazano, 51. 

Vespucius, Americus, 30-35 ; portrait, 33. 

Vicksburg, Sherman's attack on, 399 ; pic- 
ture of gunboats passing, 402 ; capture 
of, 401-408. 

View of Boston in 1790, 262. 

Vincennes, Ind., 167. 

Vinland, 20. 



Virginia, founding of, 63-74 i »n Civil War, 

375; map of, 392. 
Virginia resolutions, 277. 

Waldseemiiller, Martin, 34. 
Walker, William, filibuster, 334. 
Wall Street, N. Y. with its palisades, 131. 
Wampanoags, 90. 
War Democrats, 370. 
War, diminution of, 303. 
War of 1812-15, 288-297. 
Ward, J. Q. A., 4Q1 . 
Warming houses, 479. 
Warner, Seth, 205. 
Warner, Susan, 489. 
Warren, William, 493, 
Warren, General Joseph, 206. 
Warwick, R. I., founding of, 99. 
Washington admitted as a stale, 455. 
Washington, George, sent to Venango, 169; 
defeated at Fort Necessity, 169; saves 
the remnant of Bir.ddock s army, 170; 
aids in capturing Fort Duquesne. 173; 
appointed to commar.il the Continental 
army, 206 ; picture of his headquarters in 
Cambridge, 207; captures Boston, 209; 
his retreat from Brooklyn, 219; his re- 
treat through New Jersey, 221 ; his victo- 
ries at Trenton and Princeton, 222; his 
campaign in Pennsylvania, 229 : proposal 
to make him king, 247 ; president of the 
Federal Convention, 253 ; president of 
the United States, 256, 266-274; his 
death, 278. 
Washington, William, 239. 
Washington, city of, dispute about its site, 
270 ; picture of Capitol, 279 ; captured by 
the British, 296. 
Washington elm, picture of, 208. 
Washington, treaty of, 437, 438. 
Wasp, sloop, cr.ptures the Frolic, 290. 
Watertown, Mass., settlement of, 93. 
Wayne, Anthony, 233, 272; portrait, 233. 
Weather bureau, 470. 
Weaver, Jame=, 459. 
Webster, Daniel, 318. 329 ; portrait, 319. 
Wells, Horace, 486. 
West, Benj., 4gr. 
West Point, 237. 
West, rapid growth of the, 309. 
West Virginia, 375. 
Whalley, Edward, 109. 
Wharton, Francis, 488. 
Wheat crop, 464. 
Wheaton, Henry, 488. 
Wheeled vehicles in New Eng., 266. 
Whig parly in United States, 321, 322, 327, 

32S, 337, 349, 35J-3S8-_ 
Whigs in English politics, Old and New, 

i93-'95- 
Whiskey Insurrection, 271. 
Whiskey Ring, 443. 
White, Hugh, 322. 
White Plains, battle of, eig. 
Whitney, Eli, his cotton gin, 310. 
Whitney, Wm. Dwight, 490. 
Whittier, J. G., 333! portrait, 332. 
Whittredge, Worthington,49i. 
Wilderness, battle of, 415- 



INDEX. 



557 



Wilkes, Capt.,381. 
Wilkins, Mary, 489- 
William III., king ot Great Britain, 115, 

tfS. l6 5- _ . 

Williamsburg, Va., picture of Capitol, 200. 

Williams, Roger, 98, 99, 103 ; his meeting- 
house in Salem, 98. 

Wilmot, David, 336. 

Wilmot Proviso, 336, 338. 

Wilson, Alexander, 486. 

Wihon Tariff, 460. 

Wilson's Creek, battle of, 376. 

Winchester, 379. 

Windmill at Newport, 21. 

Windsor, Conn., founding of, too, 102. 

Winthrop, Fitz-john, 164. 

Winthrop, John, 61, 92, 101 ; portrait, 92. 

Winthrop, John, the younger, 100. 

Wirt, William, 319. 

Witchcraft delusion in Salem, 164. 

Wolfe, James, his portrait, 173 ; takes Que- 
bec, 174. 



Wolpi, pueblo of, 44. 
Wool.ey, T. D.,488. 
World's Fair of 1876 at Philadelphia, 441; 

ot 1893 at Chicago, 494. 
Writs of assistance, 182, 183. 
Wyoming, admitted as a state, 455. 
Wyoming, Pa., massacre at, 233; disputes 

about the possession of, 249. 

X. Y. Z. Dispatches, 275. 

Yemassees, 150. 
York, Me., 162. 
Yorktown, Va., captured by Washington, 

240 ; besieged by McClellan, 390. 
Young, C. A., 485. 
Young, Brigham, 329. 
Yucatan, ruined cities of, 11. 

Zollicoffer, Gen., 377. 

Zones of English colonization, 66, 124. 

Zunis, 10, 44. 



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SUCCESSIVE 

ACQUISITIONS OF TERRITORY 
BY THE 

UNITED STATES. 



SQUARE MILES. 

Area of United States in 1783 827,844 

Austria-Hungary, German Empire, France 

and Spain 834,906 

Louisiana Purchase, 1803, with the portion 

of Oregon territory retained in 1846. . .1,171,931 
Austria-Hungary, German Empire,Sweden, 

Norway, Denmark, Belgium, France 

and Spain 1,171,154 

Florida Purchase, 1819 59,268 

England and Wales 58,320 

Texas Annexation, 1845 375,239 

Austria-Hungary, Italy and Switzerland. . 370,472 

Mexican Cessions, 1848-1 853 591,318 

German Empire, France and Spain 593,963 

Alaska, 1867 577,390 

Austria-Hungary, German Empire and 

Norway 575,314 

United States, since 1867 3,602,990 

Europe 3,986,975 




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